Tài chính doanh nghiệp - Chapter 11: Financial reporting quality

Chapter 11financial reporting qualityPresenter’s namePresenter’s titledd Month yyyyfinancial reporting quality VS. quality of reported results Financial Reporting QualityDecision-useful informationFaithful representation of economic realityCompliant with standards Quality of Reported Results (aka “Earnings Quality”)Sustainable activityAdequate returnsIncreases the company’s value2Financial Reporting Quality and Earnings Quality are interrelated3Quality Spectrum of Financial Reports4Quality Spectrum of Financial ReportsExcerpt from Toyota Motor Corporation’s Consolidated Financial Results“Consolidated vehicle unit sales in Japan and overseas decreased by 37 thousand units, or 1.6%, to 2,232 thousand units in FY2014 first quarter compared with FY2013 first quarter“operating income increased by ¥310.2 billion, or 87.9%, to ¥663.3 billion in FY2014 first quarter compared with FY2013 first quarter. The factors contributing to an increase in operating income were the effects of changes in exchange rates of ¥260.0 billion...5Quality Spectrum of Financial ReportsBiased accounting choices, assumptions, estimates: “Aggressive” choices increase a company’s reported performance and financial position in the current period.“Conservative” choices decrease current reported performance but may increase future reported.Biased presentation choices:Obscure unfavorable information and/orEmphasize favorable information.6Quality Spectrum of Financial ReportsTRUMP HOTELS & CASINO RESORTS THIRD QUARTER RESULTSOctober 25, 1999 “EBITDA INCREASED TO $106.7 MILLION VS. $90.6 MILLION IN 1998 NET PROFIT INCREASED TO 63 CENTS PER SHARE VS. 24 CENTS PER SHARE IN 1998Net income increased to $14.0 million or $0.63 per share, before a one-time Trump World’s Fair charge, compared to $5.3 million or $0.24 per share in 1998.7Quality Spectrum of Financial Reports“EBITDA INCREASED TO $106.7 MILLION VS. $90.6 MILLION IN 1998 NET PROFIT INCREASED TO 63 CENTS PER SHARE VS. 24 CENTS PER SHARE IN 1998“Net income increased to $14.0 million or $0.63 per share, before a one-time Trump World’s Fair charge, compared to $5.3 million or $0.24 per share in 1998.”The problem?EBITDA of $106.7 excluded a one-time charge but included a one-time gain.GAAP Net Income—not shown in this excerpt—was $67.5 million loss, not a $14 million profit.8Quality Spectrum of Financial ReportsEarnings Management:Deliberate actions to influence reported earningsReal Earnings Management, for example:Defer R&D expenses into the next quarter in order to meet earnings targets. Accounting Earnings Management, for example:Change accounting estimates in order to meet earnings targets. 9Quality Spectrum of Financial ReportsNon-Compliant AccountingEnron (2001) used special purpose entities to understate debt and overstate profits and cash flowWorldCom (2002) capitalized certain expenditures to understate expenses and thus overstate earnings and operating cash flowNew Century Financial (2007) reserved minimal amounts for loan repurchase losses for subprime mortgages. 10Quality Spectrum of Financial ReportsFictitious TransactionsEquity Funding Corp. (1970s) created fictitious revenues and even fictitious policy holders.Crazy Eddie’s (1980s) reported fictitious inventory as well as fictitious revenues supported by fake invoices.Parmalat (2004) reported fictitious bank balances. 11motivations potentially associated with low financial reporting qualityMask poor performance (e.g., declining profitability or lower profitability than competitors)Meet or beat market expectations (e.g., analysts’ forecasts and/or management’s guidance)Increase stock price, if only temporarilyIncrease credibility with market participantsIncrease compensation that is linked to reported earningsAvoid violation of debt covenants12Conditions conducive to issuing low-quality financial reportsOpportunityMotivationRationalization13mechanisms that discipline financial reporting quality14Regulatory AuthorityAuditorsPrivate Contractingmechanisms that discipline financial reporting quality15Regulatory AuthorityAuditorsPrivate Contractingmechanisms that discipline financial reporting quality16Regulatory AuthorityAuditorsPrivate Contractingmechanisms that discipline financial reporting quality – potential limitations17Regulatory AuthorityAuditorsPrivate ContractingInfo provided by companyOpinion based on samplingExpectations gapCompany pays audit feesCompanies’ Presentation choices18What information to present—beyond required disclosures?Operating metrics (“eyeballs,” clicks, users)Pro forma measures (a.k.a. Non-GAAP or non-IFRS measures)How to present the information?Emphasize the positive aspects of performanceInclude “boilerplate” and excessive or irrelevant detailPresentation choices: groupon’S non-gaap metric19Originally Shown (June S-1 filing)After SEC’s Review (November S-1 filing)Accounting choicesChoices exist among accounting methods and estimates, including the following:Revenue recognitionTimingAmountsExpense recognitionInventory cost flowCapitalizing versus expensingDepreciation method and estimatesAllowances for realization of assets20Accounting Choices:Inventory cost flow assumptionsTrade-offs exist, and investors should be aware of how accounting choices affect financial reports.FIFO (first-in-first-out) cost assumption: More current costs are included in ending inventory on the balance sheet.Older costs are included in cost of sales on the income statement.Weighted-average cost assumption: A blend of old and new costs in inventory on the balance sheet—not as current as with FIFO. A blend of old and new costs in cost of sales on the income statement—more current than with FIFO. 21Accounting Choices:Inventory cost flow assumptionsUnitsCost per UnitTotal CostPurchase 15$100 $500 Purchase 25150750Purchase 35180900Purchase 452001,000Purchase 552401,200Cost of goods available for sale$4,350 22A company starts operations with no inventory at the beginning of a fiscal year and makes five purchases of goods for resale, as shown in the table. During the period, the company sells all of the goods purchased except for five units. What are the ending inventory and cost of goods sold if the company uses the FIFO method of inventory costing?Accounting Choices:Inventory cost flow assumptionsUnitsCost per UnitTotal CostPurchase 15$100 $500 Purchase 25150750Purchase 35180900Purchase 452001,000Purchase 552401,200Cost of goods available for sale$4,350 23A company starts operations with no inventory at the beginning of a fiscal year and makes five purchases of goods for resale, as shown in the table. During the period, the company sells all of the goods purchased except for five units. What are the ending inventory and cost of goods sold if the company uses the FIFO method of inventory costing?First costs in are first costs out to cost of goods sold: $3,150Last in are in ending inventory $1,200Accounting Choices:Inventory cost flow assumptionsUnitsCost per UnitTotal CostPurchase 15$100 $500 Purchase 25150750Purchase 35180900Purchase 452001,000Purchase 552401,200Cost of goods available for sale$4,350 24A company starts operations with no inventory at the beginning of a fiscal year and makes five purchases of goods for resale, as shown in the table. During the period, the company sells all of the goods purchased except for five units. What are the ending inventory and cost of goods sold if the company uses the FIFO method of inventory costing?First costs in are first costs out to cost of goods sold: $3,150Last in are in ending inventory: $1,200Accounting Choices:Inventory cost flow assumptionsUnitsCost per UnitTotal CostPurchase 15$100 $500 Purchase 25150750Purchase 35180900Purchase 452001,000Purchase 552401,200Cost of goods available for sale$4,350 25A company starts operations with no inventory at the beginning of a fiscal year and makes five purchases of goods for resale, as shown in the table. During the period, the company sells all of the goods purchased except for five units. What are the ending inventory and cost of goods sold if the company uses the weighted-average method of inventory costing?Accounting Choices:Inventory cost flow assumptionsUnitsCost per UnitTotal CostPurchase 15$100 $500 Purchase 25150750Purchase 35180900Purchase 452001,000Purchase 552401,20025Cost of goods available for sale$4,350 26A company starts operations with no inventory at the beginning of a fiscal year and makes five purchases of goods for resale, as shown in the table. During the period, the company sells all of the goods purchased except for five units. What are the ending inventory and cost of goods sold if the company uses the weighted-average method of inventory costing?Average cost per unit = $4,350/25 units = $174Ending inventory = 5 × $174 = $870Cost of goods sold = 20 × $174 = $3,480Accounting Choices:Inventory cost flow assumptions27Accounting choices: Capitalizing vs. expensing an expenditure28I.Use the same interest expense/capitalization proportions to allocate the interest payments between operating and investing activitiesOperating$18,000Investing$9,000II.Offset the entire $3,000 of non-cash discount amortization against the $20,000 treated as expense and included in operating cash flowOperating$17,000Investing$10,000III.Offset the entire $3,000 of non-cash discount amortization against the $10,000 capitalized and included in financing cash flowOperating$20,000Investing$7,000Capitalizing versus expensing affects cash flows as well as earnings and the balance sheet. Assume a company incurs total interest cost of $30,000, composed of $3,000 discount amortization and $27,000 interest payments. Of the total, $20,000 is expensed and the remaining $10,000 is capitalized as plant assets. The following cash flow classification alternatives for the $27,000 exist:Accounting choices: Cash flow classificationPresentation choices permitted in IAS 7, “Statement of Cash Flows,” offer flexibility in classification of certain items on the cash flow statement that is not available under US GAAP.This flexibility can significantly change the results in the operating section of the cash flow statement.IAS 7, Paragraphs 33: “Interest paid and interest and dividends received are usually classified as operating cash flows for a financial institution. However, there is no consensus on the classification of these cash flows for other entities. Interest paid and interest and dividends received may be classified as operating cash flows because they enter into the determination of profit or loss. Alternatively, interest paid and interest and dividends received may be classified as financing cash flows and investing cash flows respectively, because they are costs of obtaining financial resources or returns on investments. [Emphasis added.]IAS 7, Paragraph 34: “Dividends paid may be classified as a financing cash flow because they are a cost of obtaining financial resources. Alternatively, dividends paid may be classified as a component of cash flows from operating activities in order to assist users to determine the ability of an entity to pay dividends out of operating cash flows. [Emphasis added.]29Summary of analysts’ considerations: Revenue recognitionTiming of revenue recognitionMultiple deliverablesAllowances for sales returnsDays sales outstandingRebates30Analytical procedures to detect warning signs: revenue recognitionExamine the accounting policies note for a company’s revenue recognition policies.Consider whether the policies make it easier to prematurely recognize revenueRecognizing revenue immediately upon shipment of goods Bill-and-hold arrangements Consider estimates and judgments required by the policiesBarter transactions can be difficult to value properlyRebate programs involve many estimatesMultiple-deliverable arrangements require allocation of revenue and timing of revenue recognition for each item or service31Analytical procedures to detect warning signs: revenue recognition (continued)Look at revenue relationships.Compare a company’s revenue growth with its primary competitors or its industry peer group and understand the reasons for major differencesSuperior management or products and services? Revenue quality?Compare accounts receivable with revenuesExamine the trend in receivables as a percentage of total revenues. Examine the trend in receivables turnover for unusual changes and seek an explanation if they exist.Compare a company’s days sales outstanding (DSO) or receivables turnover with that of relevant competitors or an industry peer group. Examine asset turnover 32Summary of analysts’ considerations: inventory methodsMethod compared with competitorsReserves for obsolescenceLIFO liquidation33Analytical procedures to detect warning signs: inventoryLook at inventory relationships.Compare a company’s inventory growth—relative to sales growth—with its primary competitors or its industry peer group and understand the reasons for major differencesExamine trend in inventory turnoverPoor inventory management?Obsolescence? Future write-offs?Overstated current gross and net profits?If company uses LIFO (allowed under US GAAP), note whether LIFO liquidations occurred34Summary of analysts’ considerations: long-lived assetsEstimated life spans compared with others in the same industryChanges in depreciable lives Asset write-downsPolicies compared with competitorsCapitalization35Analytical procedures to detect warning signs: Long-lived assetsExamine the company’s accounting policy note for its capitalization policy for long-term assets, including interest costs, and for its handling of other deferred costs.Compare the company’s policy with industry practice.If the company’s policy is an outlier, cross-check asset turnover and profitability margins with others in the industry. 36Analytical procedures to detect warning signs: operating cash flow vs. net incomePay attention to the relationship of cash flow and net income. If net income is consistently higher than operating cash flow, it can signal accrual accounting policies that shift revenue to current period and/or current expenses to later periods.Construct a time series of cash generated by operations divided by net income. If the ratio is consistently below 1.0 or has declined repeatedly, there may be problems in the company’s accrual accounts.37allowance for bad debt“. . . Generally, UAP’s policy required that accounts which were past due between 90 days and one year should be reserved at 50%, and accounts over one year past due were to be reserved at 100%.. . . In FY 1999 and continuing through FY 2000, UAP had substantial bad debt problems. In FY 2000, certain former UAP senior executives were informed that UAP needed to record an additional $50 million of bad debt expense. . . .just prior to the end of UAP’s FY 2000, the former UAP COO (chief operating officer), in the presence of other UAP employees, ordered that UAP’s bad debt reserve be reduced by $7 million in order to assist the Company in meeting its PBT target for the fiscal year. . . At the end of FY 2000, former UAP senior executives reported financial results to ConAgra which they knew, or were reckless in not knowing, overstated UAP’s income before income taxes because UAP had failed to record sufficient bad debt expense.” SEC Accounting and Auditing Enforcement Release38valuation reserve for deferred tax assets“PowerLinx improperly recorded on its fiscal year 2000 balance sheet a deferred tax asset of $1,439,322 without any valuation allowance. The tax asset was material, representing almost forty percent of PowerLinx’s total assets of $3,841,944. PowerLinx also recorded deferred tax assets of $180,613, $72,907, and $44,921, respectively, in its financial statements for the first three quarters of 2000.“PowerLinx did not have a proper basis for recording the deferred tax assets. The company had accumulated significant losses in 2000 and had no historical operating basis from which to conclude that it would be profitable in future years. Underwater camera sales had declined significantly and the company had devoted most of its resources to developing its SecureView product. The sole basis for PowerLinx’s “expectation” of future profitability was the purported $9 million backlog of SecureView orders, which management assumed would generate taxable income; however, this purported backlog. . . did not reflect actual demand for SecureView cameras and, consequently, was not a reasonable or reliable indicator of future profitability.”SEC Accounting and Auditing Enforcement Release39Analytical procedures to detect warning signs: allowancesExamine allowances for which estimates can impact earnings, for example:Accounts Receivable – Allowance for Doubtful AccountsExamine changes in allowances as a percentage of the asset account.Collection experience.Tax Asset Valuation AccountsAssess reasonableness of level.Examine changes in the valuation account. Compare allowance level with information in the management commentary.Compare allowance level with information in the tax note. 40Other potential warning signs:areas that might suggest further analysisDepreciation methods and useful lives compared with those of its peers Fourth-quarter surprises routinely occurringPresence of related-party transactionsNon-operating income or one-time sales included in revenueClassification of expenses as “non-recurring” Gross/operating margins out of line with competitors or industry, an ambivalent signal.41Importance of context in judging warning signsCompanies with an unblemished record of meeting growth projections (especially younger companies)Minimalist approach to disclosure—for example, highly aggregated segment reportingFixation on reported earnings—for example, the use of aggressive non-GAAP metrics or frequent special itemsRestructuring and/or impairment chargesMerger and acquisition activity, including allocation of purchase price in an acquisition42summaryFinancial reporting quality can be thought of as spanning a continuum.Reporting quality pertains to the information disclosed whereas results quality (commonly referred to as earnings quality) pertains to the earnings and cash generated by the company’s actual economic activities.Motivations to issue lower-quality financial reports include masking poor performance, boosting the stock price, increasing personal compensation, and/or avoiding violation of debt covenants.Mechanisms that discipline financial reporting quality include the free market and incentives for companies to minimize cost of capital, auditors, contract provisions, and enforcement by regulatory entities.Examples of accounting choices that affect earnings and balance sheets include revenue recognition, inventory cost flow assumptions, estimates of realizability of assets (such as accounts receivable and deferred tax assets), depreciation method, estimated salvage value, and useful life of depreciable assets.Warning signals of potential accounting manipulation should be evaluated cohesively, not on an isolated basis.43