Computer System
Book I: computer system fundamentals.
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER.
Question 1 . What is a computer?
A computer may be defined as a machine which accepts data from an
input device processes it by performing arithmetical and logic operations
in accordance with a program of instructions and returns the results
through an output unit.
A computer is basically an electronic machine operating on current.
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y disks, are single disks
made of flexible plastic and permanently housed is an
envelope.
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- The data on floppy disks is in concentric tracks on the outer
part of the surfaces and access to it is via slot in the envelope.
- The most common size are 3½ in, 5¼in, and 8 in diameter
disks, the 3½ in disks have the advantages of a shutter.
- Floppy disks may be either single or double sided and of
course the drive needs to be correspondingly equipped.
- Both the drives and the floppy disks themselves are
inexpensive with the result that they have come into extensive
used by small business and home computer buffs.
- The range of capacities is from 1/4 to 2 megabytes and
transfer rates around 125 to 250 kilobytes per seconds.
Question 5. Optical disks?
- Optical disk are comparatively new development for data
storage.
- Optical disks consist of a single removable glass, plastic or
metal disk coated on one side with tellurium and protected by
a 1 mm layer or transpacent plastic.
- The disk diameters are mostly between 8 in and 14 in they
rotate on a spindle in a similar fashion to magnetic disks.
- The data is recorded in the form of minute pits burned into
the telliurium coating by a finely-focused lazer beam.
- Optical disks hold between 0.7 and GBs, this is about 20
times greater than magnetic dis cartridges.
- The data is read by a low power laser beam which moved
across the surface and is reflected into a photo cell.
- Optical disks rotate mostly at 1500 r.p.m which, allowing for
the movement of the laser unti, given access time of between
16 & 500 ms and data transfer rates of 0.6 to 3 MVs per
second.
- The draw back of optical disks is that the data cannot be
erased so making them non-rewriteable.
Question 6. Mass storage media?
- Mass storage media is a high capacity disk system as when
necessary by transferring data from a number of “data
cartridges” house in cells.
- Each cartridge consists of a 3 in wide magnetic modium
inside a protective cover
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- In order to load the disk system, the data cartridges are
moved automatically from the cells.
- A typical system consists of 9440 cartridges giving a storage
capacity of 472000 million bytes.
Question 7. Magnetic drums?
- A magnetic drum consists of a cylinder upon the surface of
which data is stored in magnetic form in tracks running
around its circumference, each track has its own read/write
head.
- A typical magnetic drum has 800 tracks each capable of
holding 5000 bytes.
Question 8. Charge_coupled Device Memory (CCD)?
- CCD consists of thousands tiny metal squares each capable of
holding an electric charge, thus representing a bit.
- The squares are in the form of an array 64 x 64 holding 4096
bits.
- It is very impact.
- CCD is volate lity storage.
Question 9. Magnetic Bubble Memory?
- A thin wayer of magnetic garnet is capable of containing tiny
domains or cylinders of magnetism, called bubbles.
- By erasing unwanted bubbles, the resultant presence of a
bubbles represent a 1 or a 0 bit.
- The main ads are low power consumption, compactness,
robustness reliability and non-volitility.
Question 10. Megnetic tape?
- The magnetic tape usage is now more as a backup medium
rather than a primary method of backing storage.
- It is often used as a depositony for disk dumped from fixed
data storage.
- It is in reells of up 3600 feet and is made of Mylar plastic
tape, 1/2 in wide and coated with a magnetic material on one
side.
- The data is read from one read and written to another.
- A reel of tape is loaded on a magnetic tape drive, and so as
many drives are needed as reels during a processing run.
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- It is used as a backing medium than a primary method of
backing storage.
- The seconds usually have to be sequence where store in
magnetic tape.
Chapter 7: COMPUTER FILES.
Question 1. File Processes?
1. Sorting
a. The records in logical file are brought into some sequence as
determined by key in the records.
b. A computer is capable of sorting record into a “nested”
sequence.
c. Sorting is done by a “sorting generator”. This is part of the
computer’s software and comprises several sophisticated
sorting techniques that are called into use according to the
file and the sort requirements.
d. The need of sorting has dimished in line with the demise of
magnetic tape as backing storage.
2. Merging
- Merging implies that two or more files in the same sequence
are combined into one file.
a. File merging
Two or more separate files of similar
seconds and in the same sequence are
marged together so as to form one file.
b. Record merging
The records from two or more “input” files,
usually in the same sequence, are combined
one record in the output file.
3. Matching
a. Two or more input files (generally in the same sequence) are
compared records against record in order to ensure that there
is a complete set of records for each key.
b. Masmatched records are highlighted for subsequent action
4. Summanizing
a. Records with the same key in one file are accumulated
together to form one record in the output file.
b. Summanizing usually applies to a file presorted into a certain
sequence and the resultant file is in the same sequence.
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c. Records to be summarized are generally of a similar type.
5. Searching
a. Searching is looking for records with certain keys or holding
certain data and in some way making a note of these.
b. An instance is a search for and count of all records with a
debt balance of above a certain amount.
6. Information retrieval
a. Information retrieval is the process that involves the bringing
together of data from several files.
b. Data may also be extracted from several files and combined
before being presented as information.
Chapter 8: DIRECT ACCESS FILE ORGANIZATION AND
STRUCTURES.
Question 1. Storage and Access Modes?
There are 3 principal modes for storing and accessing accords on a disk
or drum:
1. Serial mode:
- The record are stored contigously regardless of their keys
- The sole way of accessing serial seconds is to search through
the complete file starting with the first record.
- It is sometimes possible to partition a serial files thus
reducing the search time by starting the search at the
beginning of a known partition.
- A serial file is normally of a temporary nature awaiting
sorting into a useful sequence.
2. Sequential mode:
- direct access sequential mode normally involves accessing
sequential a file that is stored sequentially.
- sequential mode is often associated with a master file held in
a certain sequence and updated by a transaction file sorted
into the same sequence.
3. Indexed_sequential/ selective_sequential mode
- Indexed_sequential is a mode of storage where by records are
held sequentially and accessed selectively.
- Groups of unrequired records are skipped past.
- Indexed sequential files may also be accessed haphazandly.
4. Random modes:
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- Each record is stored in a location determind from the
second’s key by means of an add generation algorithm.
- The only erricient way to find a record is to use the algorithm
- Random mode is applicable to master files
Ads of random modes
No index is required thus saving storage space
It is a fast access method because little or no
searching is involved
Transaction do not need storing, thus saving time
New records are easily insertly into the random
file provided they are not excessive in number
Dis
The main problem with the random mode is in
achieving a uniform spread of records over the
storage are allocated to the file
Question 2. Direct Access Addressing?
- The key of record is used to identify by record
- The key of record also is used to decide its storage
location(or address)
1. Self addressing:
- Self addressing is a straight forwards method because a
record’s address is equal to its key’s value
- The file is inevitably stored in key sequence
Ads of self addressing
It leads directly to the wanted record
No indexing or searching is required
The key itself need not necessarily be held within
the stored record- although it generally is
Dis
The storage space per second has to be the same
When records one missing, storage locations
related to its must be left empty
2. Self addressing with key conversion
- This method a basically similar to self addressing except that
the key required a little processing to turn it into the record’s
address
- This leads to either a pricise address
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3. Matrix addressing
- In somes case, it is necessary to find the add of a record held
within a multi dimensional matrix of record it’s called matrix
addressing.
Question 3. Direct Access Searching?
- Where as addressing determines the location of a record by
using algorithmic methods, searching finds the record by
scanning groups of records, and index, or both.
- ]The simplest method is to examine every record a file until
the required record is found a shortcut is generally desiable.
1. Indexed sequential searching
- A cylinder index is created to hold the highest cylinder’s key
- Associated with each cylinder is a block index holding the
highest key in each block within that cylinder
- When searching for a record’s key in the index
The cylinder index is examined key_by_key until
one is found that is larger than or equal to the
wanted key this directs the search to the
appropriate block index
The block index a similarly examined and the
search
The block is searched record by record until the
wanted record is found
2. Binary searching( binary chopping )
- The key in the index to be binary search must be in sequence
and form a complete set
- The search starts at the midpoint of the index and then moves
half way to the left or right(down or up) depending upon
whether are wanted key is less than or greater than the
midpoint key
- In pracice, the index is unlikely to as convenient as this
example because it is not always possible to exactly halve
each sucessive move(complete exact holvingis possible only
when the total number of keys in the index is 20-1)
- The average number of examinations comparisons is (log2k)
-1
( k is the number of keys in the index)
3. Block searching
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- A block is a subdivision of an index. A block is devised to
contain, roughly the square root of the number of keys in the
whole index
- The search is first through the block index to find the
appropriate block and then through this to find the wanted
key
- The average number of examinations is square – root – k (k
is the total number of keys)
4. Balanced binary tree searching
- A binary tree is a relationship of keys such that the
examination of any key leads to one of two other keys
- The binary tree is actually in the form of an index containing
all the keys together with a directory showing the braches
stemming left and right from each key
- Binary tree searching is suitable for an unsequenced file
- The search is similar to binary searching in that each key
examination holves the rinaining keys, on average
Chapter 11: INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE.
Question 1. AI?
Atificial Intelligence
It has three braches
1. Expert systems (or knowledge- base system)
- ESs are programs that contain the knowledge of human
expert, encoded so a computer can understand it with
encated- knowledge seasoning machinism, ES can tackle
problem that are beyond the seach of conventionally
programmed computers.
2. Natural language systems (everyday native language)
- Natural language systems are programs that understand the
native language of the user, such as E
- The most popular natural language systems are those that act
as interfaces to data bases
3. Simple perception systems (for vision, speed and touch)
- They can interpret visual scenes and decide if object meet
inspection standards and quality control criteria, or move a
robot to the proper location ot grasp a part for manufacturing
Question 2. Who does the updates?
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- Updating the knowledge bases is very diffirent when with
updating databases because of the difference in the type of
information and in the cause and effect relationship contained
in knowledge bases
- A knowledge in the area, when databases may be modified by
a normal users
Chapter 12: EXPERT SYSTEMS.
Question 1. What is an ES( Expert system )?
An ES is a knowledge-intersive program that solves a problem that
normally requires human expertise
Characteristics of ESs
- They solve problems as well as or better than human experts
- They use knowledge in the form of rules or frames
- They can consider multiple hypotheses simultaneouly
Types of ES
- An assistant
Is the leasts expert or lowest level ESs
It helps a decision maker by doing routine
analysis and porting out those portion of the work
where human expertise is required
- A colleage
The new discusses the problem until a joint
decission is reached
When system is going wrong, the user adds more
information to get it back on track
- True ES
Is a system that advises the user without question
There are no practical areas today in which
decission
Question 2. A ES Life Cycle (ESLC)?
- An accepted SDLC for expert systems has yet to be
developed
There are 6 phases life cycle in an ES
1. Phase1 – Selection of an Appropriate Problem
- Phase 1 involves finding an appropriate problem for an ES,
indentifying an expert to contribute the expertise
- Establishing a preliminary approach
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- Analysing the cost and benefitsPreparing a development plan
2. Phase 2 – Development of a prototype system
- A prototype sys is a small version of an ES designed to test
assumptions about how to encode the facts, the relationships
and the knowledge of experts
- The prototype permits the knowledge engineer to gain the
expert’s commitment and to develop a deeper understanding
of the field of expertise
- Other subtasks in this phase:
Learning about the domain and the task
Specifying performance criteria
Selecting an ES building tool
Developing an implementation plan
Developing a detailed design for a complete
system
3. Phase 3 – Development of a Complete System
- The main work in this phase is the addition of a very large
number of rules
- The knowledge base has to be expanded to full knowledge
base appropriate to the real world and the user interface has to
be developed
4. Phase 4 – Evaluation of the system
- This phase involves testing the system against the
performance establised in earlier stages
5. Phase 5 – Intergration of the system
- The ES has to be intergrated into the data flow and work
patterns of the organization
- In this stage, the expert system has to be interfaced with other
databases, instruments and hardware.
6. Phase 6 – Maintenance of the system
- The maintenance of the ES involves is updating, charging in
the system when operating. When operating, more problems
occur in the system, so it is necessary to continue take care
the system by expert in a fix period of time
- So expert system, are so complex that in a few year the
maintenance costs will equal the development costs.
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BOOK II: Computer systems architecture.
Chapter 1 – 2: NUMBER BASES.
Question 1. Common number bases used in computer hardware
operation?
Decimal(denary) system:
- The base is ten – there are 10 different symbols, the digits 0,
1, 2, etc...upto 9
- To represent value less than ten involves only one digit larger
values need two or more digits
Binary system
- The base must be two, with only the digits 0 and 1 available
- To show values of two or ever require two or more binary
digits
Octal system
- Octal system has eight as its base, it uses the symbol 0, 1, 2
up to 7 only
- Two or more digits are needed for values of eight and above
Hexadecimal system(hex)
- Hexadecimal system has sixteen as its base, it use the
symbols 0, 1, 2...,9 & A, B, C, D, E, F, to stand for the
“digits” ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen.
Question 2. Converting from Bases To Bases?
1. Change the decimal
- Binary:
Eg. (2559) 10
2559 1
1279 1
639 1
319 1
159 1
79 1 (2559)10 =
(10111111111)2
39 1
19 1
9 1
4 0
2 1
21
0 0
- Octal:
7690 8
49 96,1 8
10 16 120 8
40 15 8
(7690)10 = (17012)8
- Hexadecimal:
6396 16
159 399 16
156 79 24 16
C F
(6369)10 = (CF81)16
2. Convert to others from binary
- To decimal
(101010)2 (?)10
1.25 + 0.24 + 1.23 + 0.22 + 1.21 + 0.20 = 42
(101010)2 = (42)10
- To octal
100101101
1st step change into denary
= 1.28 + 1.25 + 1.23 + 1.22 + 1.20
= 256 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1
=(301)10
2nd step: convert to octal
2 1
0 7 1
12 15 8 1
1
22
301 8
61 37 8
(301)10 = (455)8 (100101101)2 = (455)8
- To hexadecimal
110111011011
1st step
= 1.211 + 1.210 + 1.28 + 1.27 + 1.26 + 1.24 + 1.23 +
1.21 + 1.20
= 2048+ 1024 + 256 + 158 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1
= (3547)10
2nd step
3547 16
384 221 16
27 61
(3547)10 = (CCA)16 (110111011011)2
= (CCA)16
3. Convert into binary and display the answer in normalized
exponential form
247 1
123 1
61 1
30 1
15 1
7 1
3 1
1 1
0 1
(247)10 = (11110111)2
= 0. 1111011 x 2
normalized exponential form
5 5 4
11 13
13
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Question 3. Integer and Floating – point arithmetic?
1. Floating – point Addition
a. (0.1011 x 25 ) + (0.1001 x 25 )
= (0.1011 + 0. 1001) x 25
= 1.0100 x 25
= 0.10100 x 26
b. (0.1001 x 23 ) + (0.1110 x 25 )
= (0.001001 x 25 ) + (0.1110 x 25 )
= (0.001001 + 0.111000) x 25
= 1.000001 x 25
= 0.1000 x 26 (here have truncation)
(0.1000001 x 26 )
2. Floating – point subtraction
a. (0.1110 x 27 ) – (0.1100 x 27 )
= 0.0010 x 27
= 0. 10 x 25
b. (0.1001 x 28 ) – ( 0.1000 x 25 )
= (0.1001 x 28 ) – ( 0.0001 x 28 )
= 0.1000 x 28
3. Floating – point multiplication
a. (0.1010 x 23 ) x (0.1100 x 23 )
= (0.1010 x 0.1100) x 26
= 0.01111 x 26
= 0.1111 x 25
b. (0.11110 x 23 ) x ((0.01011) x 24 )
= (0.11110 x 0. 01011) x 27
= 0.001111 x 27
= 0.1111 x 25
4. Floating – point division.
a. (0.11010 x 26) : (0.001 x 26)
= (0.11010 x 26) : (1 x 23)
= 0.1101 x 26 : 1x 23
= 0.1101 x 23
b. (0.110111 x 26) : (0.1001 x 24)
= (0.110111 : 0.1001) x 22
= (1101.11 : 1001) x 22
= 1.100001 x 22
= 0.1100001 x 23
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Chapter 3: TYPES OF INSTRUCTION AND ADDRESSING.
Question 1. Types of instructions used in CS?
1. Arithmetic instructions.
Arithmetic instructions include directives to the computers to perform
additions, subtraction, multiplications, divisions and exponentiations.
2. Input/ output instructions.
They direct the computer to read data values from the specified input
devices into the main store for processing.
They also include instructions to write the contents of memory
locations holding the result of processing to a specified output device.
3. Decision or control instructions.
Most data processing application will contain situations where
alternative calculations or procedures will have to be executed based
on the result of condition tests carried out.
4. Data handling instructions
They include the copying of the content of one memory location to
another or setting a memory locations to an initial value.
Also include the management or insertion of characters into data
items
Examples of such instructions include branch instructions, jump
instruction & stop instruction.
Question 2. Types of addressing?
1. Direct addressing
The operands of each machine instructions is used to retrieve the data
2. Indirect addressing
The operands is used to specify the memory address which contains
the address of the data to be processed
Op – code
OP –
CODE
OPERAND OP –
CODE
OPERAND
12345
Data item
25
12345
Data item
Main storage
Direct addressing
Indirect addressing
3. Indexed addressing
- The main applications of this type of addressing technique is
to enable to access of sequential locations in memory that are
adjacent to each other
- Each adjcent memory address has value n+1, where n is the
address of the previous location
- When the first of the location have been accessed, the next
memory location in sequence is accessed by simply
increasing the add of the present location by 1 & using
accessing it
- The starting address of the series of locations is specified in
the operand of the instruction
- In order to access the next location in sequence, the content
of the index register is increased by 1 a added to the opreand
address
- This is done repeatedly until the last memory location in the
series is processed
Indexed addressing.
OP – CODE OPERAND
Index Register
Data 1 Data 2 Data 3 Data 4
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Chapter 4: PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.
Question 1. Program and level of language?
Program is group of constructions that is linked together to perform
specific task. It’s necessary for a computer program to be written in a
“PL” because at a computer program is created by a programing using
a sys analyst’s specification of the job in the hand.
1. Machine language
- ML is the set of bit(0,1) that can performed considered by
CPU
- Ads
fast
short prog
store in small memory
- Dis
difficult to understand & remember its code
takes a lot of time to programming
difficult to use
2. Low level language
- LLL is used to dercribe exactly procedure of performance of
CPU at certain time
- Features:
Instruction is written by natrural English or
natural language
More powerful and so the prog is shortest
Need less instruction
Is a one to one relationship between the written
instruction and the machine instructions
It’s instruction tend to be machine. It runs in OS
- Ads:
Easy to write
Easy to understand
Known the processing data in CPU
Prog writing is shortset
- Dis:
Must be complier
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The time of running prog is longer than machine
language
3. High level language
- HLL was developed in order to further easy the work of
programmers by making the programming language more
procedure oriented
- Features:
The statements of HLL are closer to natural
english or other natural language
A HLL source program must be translated into
machine code by means of a compiler or an
interpreter
- Ads:
Easy to wirte
Easy to understand
May be used for everybody
Closed to natural languages english language
- Dis:
Must be interpreter by compiler or an interpreter
before processing by the computer
The prog is long
The time to run the prog is longer than low level
language
Question 2. Some High Level Languages (HLL)?
1. COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language
- COBOL is an exetensively used HLL and since around 1960
several versions have appeared
- The original intention was that COBOL should be capable of
being compiled and run on any model of computer
- COBOL is now employed for many business data processing
applications, and so a brief explaination of its structure
follows
- A COBOL program consists of 4 divisions:
Identifycation division this identifies the prog
Enviroment division specifies the computer to be
used for compiling and processing
Data division specifies the format and relates to
these to the names used in the procedure division
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Procedure division comprises the statements in the
source program, this is the main part of a COBOL
program
2. BASIC: Beginners ALL purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
- BASIC is a straightforward HLL intended for use in a time-
sharing environment in this respect it is particularly
beneficial in educational institutions
- One of the difficulties with BASIC is the welter of dialects
currently in use
- Essentially BASIC consists of statements made up of verbs &
variables. The verbs are similar to those in COBOL but there
is a large to them that in effect become the addresses of their
locations in the main store
- A variable name must be unique and generally consists of
one or a few alphabetic characters, purhaps followed by a
digit
3. PASCAL: named after the famous 17th century French
mathematician
- It was expressly designed as a language to make
programming more systematic and discriplired and in these
respects lends itself to structured programming
- It is however more difficult to learn than are COBOLS BASIC
and so is unliked to be accepted as a language for
microcomputers are geared to BASIC only
Question 3. Operating Systeim?
- Concept of OS:
An OS consists of a suite of programs, one of
which, the master, kernel or exeactive program,
remains resident in the main store. This program
controls the other OS programs in th suites and
between them they controls the application
programs
Often the operating system includes various
application packages among its suit of programs.
Ex of such software include: word processing,
electronic mail, networking, speadsheet, graphics
and file handling
- Function of OS
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Pricrity assignment:
Jobs waiting execution are scheduled according to either a
predetermined or a dynamic assignments plan
Control of multiprogramming
Control of accomplish multiprogramming an “executive” or
“supervisor” program is employed to control the application
programs
Communication
Control of data transmission between terminals and the computer,
and computer to computer
Database
Control of DBMS
Software control
Control of assemblers, compilers, utility software, and subroutines
so that these are imediately available when required
Spooling
The control of input/output peripherals in order to achieve their
best utilisation
Dynamic allocation
Of main and backing storage, including virtual storage
Operating allocation
Via the console printer or VDU
Debugging and editing new programs
In confunction with the compiler, and passing error msgs to the
user
Operation log
Maintaince of details of all jobs carried out by the computer
Application package control
Especially with microcomputers, as describe above
Chapter 6: TRANSLATORS.
Question 1. Translators?
1. Assemblers
Def: A program that translates assembly language into machine
code. Dos machine instruction is generated for each source
instruction
- The resulting program ran only be executed when the
assembly process is completed
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Operation:
- Translates mnemonic operation codes into machine code &
symbolic address into machine address
- Includes the neressary linkages for closed subroutines and
inserts appropriate machine code for macros
- Allocates area of storage
- Detects and indicates valid source language instruction
- Procedures the object program on tape or disk required
- The lesting may also include error codes if appropriate. To
illustrate the methods used just think about an assembly
program. We must first look at the directives
A directive is used to control the assembly
process, it is not asembled but is obeyed by the
assembler when it is encouteded, e.g ”END”, is
sometimes called a pseudo-operation code on
pseudo-opcode
2. Interpreter
A program which translates and executes each source statement in
logical sequence as the program one instruction at a time, completely
translating and executing each instruction before it goes onto the next
- Interpreter, which deals with the source program one
instruction at a time, completely translating and executing
each instruction before it goes onto the next
- Interpreter seldom produce object code but call upon inbuilt
routines instead
- Some intermediate code is usually produced tempororily
- If an interpreter is used, the source program will be translated
every time the program is executed
- Interpreters are widely used, particular for the programming
language Basic on small computers
Interpriter are used for such things as:
- Handling user commands in an interactive sys
- Debugging programs as they run
- Handling software produced for or by a different computer
3. Compilers:
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A program that translates HLL into a machine orientated language, often
the machine code. Many machine instructions are generated for each
source statement
- The compiler:
Translates the source program statements into
machine code
Includes linkage for closed subroutines
Allcocates areas of main storage
Generates the object program on cards, tape and
disc as required
Produces a printed listing of the source and
objected programs when required
Tabulates a lish of errors found during
compilation
- Compilers are commonly used for the translation of HLL
program
- Compiler translates the whole of the HLL source program
into a machine code object program prior to the program
being loaded into main memory and executed
- If a compiler is used, the same program need only be
translated once
Stages of compilation
lexical analysis
systatical analysis
code generation
Chapter 7: SOFTWARE.
Question 1. Application software?
- Application software comprises the programs that are written
specifically to achieve resulting appertaining to the
company’s activities
- Application software comes from two source
They produce by themselves
Buy from an external agency
1. Ads and dis of using application packages in house
Ads
- The requirements of the application are more easily met
- There is more control in testing and debugging
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- The more control over the usage and support obtained
Dis
- There is a waiting period before the application can be
implemented
- Development cost is higher than buying a package
2. Ads and dis of using application package
Ads:
- The packages can be used immediately
- Documentation is generally good
- It can be used on a varisty of machines
- It is cheaper as the costs of the packages are shared between
many users
- Comprehensive on line help information and guided tutorials
available
- Easily remembered command syntax
- Can be used in confunction with other software in an
integrated fashion
Dis:
- Modifications may be difficult for some applications
- Package may be two generalized to suit user needs
- Some features purchased may not be required
- Support given depends on stability and professionalison of the
vendor
- User are required to comply with the owner’s regulations
Question 2. Utility software?
- Certain processing is common to a high proportion of
computer users, and so utility software has been created to
cater for this need
- Utility software is intended to be sufficiently flexible to meet
most user’s requirements and is tailored to meet their precise
needs by means of parameter entered prior to use
- Some of the utility programs described below may be
incorporated into the OS that is used with a particular
computer
File conversion: this convers the transference of
data from any medium to any other
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File copying: an exact copy of a data set is made
on to another lot for the same type of storage
medium
File reorganisation: direct access, files over flow
records are stored in designed blocked, this is
acceptable up to a point but from time it si
necessary to reorganise the file so as to remove
the overflow
File maintenance(amendment): this procedure
involves the straightforward insertion and deletion
of records into or form sequential files
Sorting: is frequently necessary in order to arrange
a set of records into a certain sequence based on
their key values
Dumping routines: a dump routine is used in
confunction with a restfirt program ...
House keeping operations: there are programs or
parts of a programs not directly concerned with
the solution of the problem in hand
Trace routines: these entails, the dumping, display
or printing of th program or other contents of the
main store during program testing to facilitate
error detection
- Utilitys are commonly used to perform these functions:
Copying of files
Sorting of data
Merging of files
Data recovery
Reformating of records by reamanging their fields
File reorganization
Reporting of sys status and usages
Question 3. System software?
There are three main types of memory placement policy:
- First fit
- Best fit
- Worst fit
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1. First fit policy, an incoming job is placed in the first available free
space large enough to fit it. This allows the placement decision to
be made quickly
2. Best fit policy, an incoming job is placed in the free space in which
it fits most tightly
3. Worst fit policy, an incoming job is placed in the largest possible
hole of free space
Question 4. Types of scheduling?
- Scheduling of job is also an important part of any OS. It
involves keeping track of and deciding which job is to be
executed
- Types of scheduling
Deadline scheduling
First in first out scheduling(FIFO)
Round robin scheduling
Shortest job first(STF) scheduling
Shortest remaining time scheduling(SRT)
- More details about types of scheduling
In deadline scheduling certains are scheduled to
be completed by a specifir time or deadline.
Deadline scheduling can be very complex
requiring substantial overhead in resource
management
FIFO scheduling: processes are dispatched
according to their arrival time in the ready queue.
This type of
Round robin scheduling is similar to FIFO
scheduling but the difference lies in that each job
is given a slice of CPU time
SJF scheduling: shorter jobs are more favoured
than longer one. SJF selects job that ensures the
next jobs will complete & leave the sys as soon as
possible
SRT scheduling: the job will the smallest
estimated remaining run time is executed first. In
SRT, a running job may be replaced by a new job
with a shorter estimated run time
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Chapter 8: MEMORY MANAGEMENT.
Question 1. Virtual Storage System?
- Instructions and data not currently needed might even be
stored on the disk and thus free up a portion memory
- Virtual storage systems have evolved to meet these needs.
Virtual storage systems allow programs to be as large as
necessary, even larger that the physical storage capacity of
the computer
- Translating the user’s view of the program into the physical
reality of computer storage is one of the major task performed
by virtual memory OS like IBM’s MVS and digital VMS
- Virtual storage system included non paged systems
Paged systems
Chapter 9: NETWORKING.
Question 1. Types of network layout?
Network topology is the name given to the various types of network
layout
1. Start network(or centralised network)
- This network all communications go through a central node
Node A
Node D
Central(Hub) active
Passtive
Node C
Node B
- The centra of star network is the hub which performs the
function of routing msgs and data within the network
- The hub manages & senvices all incoming and outgoing
communication traffic. It’s also provide info services from a
large central data bases
2. Mesh network (or distributed network)
- This network may be fully connected or partially connected
A
E B
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D C
- Data can get from one node to another node via different
route
- Multi point to point
3. Ring network( or loop network)
A B
D C
- Work stations connect to the ring
- More cabling requiring than BUS
- The connectors used with a lot of problem
- Cable is used UTP, STP
4. Bus network( or multidrop network)
A B
- All workstations are connected the same cable segment
- Commonly used for implomenting ethenet at 10 mbps(Mb/s)
- The cable is terminalled at each end
- Writing is normally store point to point
- A faulty cable or work station will take the entire LAN down
Question 2. Network control?
1. Modems(modulation demodulation)
A telephone line B
Modem modem
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Digital signal analog signal
OR
Data transmission Using a Modem
- To communicate between computers via telephone line, there
is a need to convert signals from the computer into a form
suitable for transmission over the telephone line or convert
from digital signals into analogue signals, and convert back
from analogue signals to digital signals
- From source: digitals signals are converted into analogue
signals(modulation)
- At the received end analogue signals are converted back into
digital signals (demodulation)
- A device to handle modulation, demodulation process is
called Modem
2. Bandwidth and Fibre Opties
The major benefits of fibre opties are:
- Fibre optic cables are much lighter and smaller in size
- Greatly increased speed in data transmission
- Greatly reliability
- Greater secerity as lines can not be tapped
3. Transmission
a. Simplex transmission
This method allows for transmission in one direction only
b. Half duplex transmission
This method means that’s data can be transmitted in both directions, but
is only on direction at a time
c. Full duplex trasmission
This method of transimission allows for transmission in both directions
simultaneously
* Two modes of transmission are used when transmitting data over
communication lines. They are
asynchrorous
Computer
Computer
Modem Modem
38
synchronous
Asynchronous:
- One character at a time is transmitted or received
- Each character is preceded by a start bit and a stop bit
The start bit is used to indicate or character is
being sent
The stop bit is used to indicate the end of the
character
- Asynchronous transmission is used for low speed devices
Direction of transmission
S S S S
T T T T
A 11000001 O 1111111 A 11000010 O
R P R P
T T
Synchronous:
- The speed of transmission is much faster
- Transmission groups of character can be send down the line
without the start and stop bits
Direction of transmission
000111000001011100000011
Question 3. LAN_Local Area Networks?
Def: A LAN is a communication network in that connects
office equipment to provide a variety of data communication
service which features high transmission rates and low error
rates
Characteristics:
- Utilisation of some type of switching topology
- Locality restricted to a few miles or in the same bulding
- Proprietorship by a single organisation
Features:
- LAN is after used in offices & it connects of fire equipment
to provide a variety of data communication. Service with light
transmission rate and low errors rate
39
- The majorities of LANs are connected by coxial cable, and
the protocol(rule for communication) is very simple
Three other important aspects of LANs:
- Acess method (protocol)
Central control
CSMA_CD
Empty slot access
Token access/token passing
LAN transmission modes:
There are 2 main types of LAN transmission modes
a. Baseband transmission: is essentially & binary method, each
bit being represented by one of two states of an electric pulse
passing through the network.
Baseband is nevertheless suitable for most LANs, and is the
mode employed by Ethernet and Cambridge Ring network
b. Broadband transmission: the data is modulates into a carrier
wave. Broadband transmission has a much greater band
width than baseband, it can transmit sth like ten times as
much in a given time
LAN is one of the distributed processing designs
- LAN are considered loosely coupled system processors are
located in separate machines and communicate at relatively
low speeds
- LAN is the means by which distribution takes places,
regardless of what are distributed
Chapter 10: DATA COMMUNICATIONS.
Question 1. Write a short note of?
1. Communication is an extensive subject in its own right,
encompassing not only data transmission but also sound and video
transmission via telephone lines, radio links and satellite links.
2. Multiplexing is a means of combining together data from several
sources so that it can be transmitted along one comminication line
3. Front – end processing: A front – end processor is usually a
minicomputer or a microcomputer interposed between the main
computer and the multiplexor
Its purpose is to relieve the host computer from the bunden of
communications housekeeping
40
4. Concentrators are device used to gather the bit from each terminal
or group of terminal and hold them on buffer store unit until there
are sufficient to justify forward transmission
5. Protocol is an “agreement” where by devices can communicate is a
fully understand manner
6. Multidrop line has several terminals on
concentrator attached to it
7. Distributed data processing sys is one of which interconnected
points at which processing power and storage capacity are availble
Question 2. Fibre Optics?
Fibre optics is that data and other information is transmitted in the
form of light through very fine glass fibres
Ads:
- High bandwidth eg data transmission capacity
- Low cross – talk eg interference between adjacent fibres
- Low attenuation eg loss of signal strength
- Freedom from interference from external electrical and
electromagnetic equipment
- High reliability
- Safe because no heat, sparks or electrical voltages are created
- Economic because glass is loss expensive than copper
Chapter 11: DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING.
Question 1. Client/ Server Model?
- It’s common way to employ distributed processing that is
client/server architecture which splits into components
- Server store & main palates the actual data & provide secenity,
losting function transaction logging recovery capabilities
- Client/ server model seems like PC lan each server support more
users
- Data request in form of SQL(structure quenf language) command
travel across the network from client to server
Client Server
Database
Request
LAN Response
41
Question 2. File sharing VS client server?
Network
Client Server
The file sharing model
>
Network
Interface Interface
The client/ server model
File sharing
- File are shared for a lot of
machines in the
network(each machine can
Client server
- Database are stored in
the server machines and
client machines can send
Application
tool process
Application
tool process
Database
Application tool
process
Database
engine process
Database Database
engine process
SQL execute
commands
42
access to the shared files)
- It can create heavy network
traffic(each access to a large
file can potentially block of
the file, showing the system
amount of information
temporarily unavailable to
other user)
request for appropriate
data
- Only the records
matching the request
criteria raresent back to
client machines so the
sys never has heavy
traffic
Question 3. Distributed Database Topology?
- With distributed processing system, user can access data, that is
located among a number of physically separate servers. It provides
user with a globol view of the data.
- With distributed database, the problems with implementing still
exists.
- Developing distributed database application requires extensive
planning to anticipate the many complex possibilities.
- For a large number of transactions travelling across the network
the capacity of communication lines and the possible impact a
system must be carefully considered.
Chapter 12: THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE.
Question 1. The OSI model?
- OSI model, adopted in 1983 by IOS <International Organization
Standardization>, which is a framework for defining standards for
linking hetenogenerous computer
- The communication function are pastitioned into a vertical set of
layers. Each layer performs are lated subset of the functions
required to communicate with other sys
- The OSI layers
Physical: concerned with transmission of
unstructured bit stream over physical medium,
deals with the mechinical, electrical, functional,
and procedual characteristrics to access the
physical medium
Data link: provides for the reliable transfer of
information across the physical link, send blocks
of data with the necessary synchronization, error
control, and flow control.
43
Network: provides upper layers with independence
from the data transmission and switching
technologies used to connect systems, responsible
for establishing, maintaining and terminating
connections
Transport: provides rediable, transparent transfer
of data between end points, provide end_to_end
error recovery and flow control.
Session: provides the control structure for
communicaton between applications, establishes,
manages, and terminates connections between
cooperating applications.
Presentation: provide independence to the
application processes from difference in data
representation(syntax)
Application: provide access to the OSI
environment for users and also propvides
distributed information services
User oriented Application Users of transport
Presentation service
End to end Session
connection oriented Transport
Network
Point to point Data link Network service
link oriented Physical
Perspectives on the OSI architecture
Question 2. Protocols?
Both OSI and the TCP/IP protocol suite deal with communications
among hetrnogenerous computers
Both are based on the concept of protocol and have many similarities
a. TCP/IP protocol architecture
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
IP: Internet Protocol
- The TCP/IP protocol architecture is based on a view of
communication that involves three agents: processes, hosts, and
networks
- Communication between processes takes place across networks to
which the hosts are attached
44
- A network need only be concerned with routing data between
hosts, as long as the hosts agree how to direct data to processes
- It is natural to organize protocols into four layer
i. Network access layer: contains those protocols that provide access
to a communication network
ii. Internet layer consists of the procedures required to allow data to
traverse multiple networks between hosts
iii. Host_host layer: containts protocol entities with the ability to
deliver data between two processes on different host computers
iv. Process/ application layer: contains protocols for resource sharing
and remote access
b. Operation of TCP/IP
Application Application
TCP TCP
OS IP OS IP
Network access
protocol 1
Network access
protocol 2
Network 1 Network 2
Netwo
Communications using the TCP/ IP protocol architecture
NAP: Network Access Points
- IP is implemented in all of the end systems it keeps track of blocks
of data to ensure that all are delivered veritably to the appropriate
application
- For successful communication, every entity in the over all sys must
have a unique address, two level of addressing are needed
Global Internet Address(for communication)
Ports(for service)
Try your best, you will get the best!
IP
NAP 1 NAP2
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Contents
BOOK I: Computer system fundamentals.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ................................ 2
CHAPTER 2 MICROPROCESSOR ........................................................ 3
CHAPTER 3 BATCH/ ONLINE AND REAL TIME PROCESSING
SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 4
46
CHAPTER 4 PRINTERS AND TERMINALS ....................................... 5
CHAPTER 5 DATA STORAGE MEDIA ............................................... 7
CHAPTER 7 COMPUTER FILES ........................................................... 9
CHAPTER 8 DIRECT ACCESS FILE ORGANIZATION AND
STRUCTURES ........................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 11 INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE12
CHAPTER 12 EXPERT SYSTEMS ........................................................ 12
BOOK II: Computer systems architecture.
CHAPTER 1 NUMBER BASES ............................................................ 13
CHAPTER 2 NUMBER BASES ............................................................ 13
CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF INSTRUCTION AND ADDRESSING ....... 16
CHAPTER 4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES ................................. 18
CHAPTER 6 TRANSLATORS .............................................................. 20
CHAPTER 7 SOFTWARE ..................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 8 MEMORY MANAGEMENT ......................................... 23
CHAPTER 9 NETWORKING ............................................................... 23
CHAPTER 10 DATA COMMUNICATION........................................... 26
CHAPTER 11 DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING ....................................... 27
CHAPTER 12 THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE................................... 28
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