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orce31 gains an increase in the 2000-2004 period, bridging the gap with men. In 2003, the rate is 77.7% and 78.1% for rural women and men respectively (Figure 2.6). Figure 2.6: Percentage working time used in rural areas by sex from 2000 to 2003 (%) 73.6 74.3 75.5 77.7 74.6 74.5 75.6 78.1 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 2000 2001 2002 2003 Female Male Source: 2000-2003 Labor and Employment surveys, MOLISA However, the percentage of working time used by rural female workforce varies among different age groups. It is highest after the age of 50 and lowest before the age of 20. In the 20-50 age group, the percentage of the working time used by women increases steadily and is always about one percent lower than men, e.g. 77.3% in women vs. 78.3% in men in the age of 25-29. It means that even in the age of birth-giving and child- 11 Percentage of time actually used for work by rural women to the total hours available for work in economically active rural women. 53 rearing, the percentage of working time used by rural women does not reduce as compared to men (Figure 2.7) Figure 2.7: Percentage of working time used in rural areas by sex and age group in 2003 (%) Source: 2000-2003 Labor and Employment surveys, MOLISA 80.9 79.2 78.478.3 73.9 77.3 79.4 78.8 73.8 78.3 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 Female Male The concentration of female workforce is higher in agriculture and trade and male workforce is higher in fishery and construction. In 2002, per 100 female workers, there are nearly 60 women in agriculture; 1.5 in fishery; 13 in trade and 0.7 in construction. Meanwhile per 100 male workers, there are 51.5 men in agriculture, 4.5 in fishery, 7.5 in trade and 8 in construction (Figure 2.8). Figure 2.8: Population aged 15 and over by sex and key economic sector 59.8 1.5 12.2 0.7 13 15.1 51.5 4.5 12.9 7.9 7.5 12.4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Agriculture Fishery Industry Construction Trade Service Female Male Source: 2002 Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey, GSO The annual average income of female workers in the national economy is about the same level as male. However, it differs from sector to sector. In 2002, the ratio of annual average income of a female to a male worker is 1.05 in the whole national economy, 1.13 in industry and construction, and 0.97 in agriculture, forestry and fishery (figure 2.9). 54 This is a surprising finding given the fact that recent studies indicate a ratio of female/male average income being just 0.9. Figure 2.9: Ratio of annual average income of a female to a male worker in 2002 1.05 0.97 1.13 0.98 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 National economy Agro - forestry - fishery Industry & construction Trade & services Source: 2002 Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey, GSO The average hours used per day for production and business by women in the working age is about the same as men. In 2002, the figure is 4.9 hours for women and 5.0 hours for men. There is a certain difference between sectors with the figure being lowest in agriculture, forestry and fishery and highest in trade and services at 6.1 hours for both men and women (figure 2.10). Figure 2.10: Average hours used per day for production and business by population in the working age by sex and sector in 2002 (hours) 5 4.3 5.8 6.1 5.1 4.4 5.8 6.1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 National economy Agro - forestry - fishery Industry & construction Trade & services Female Male Source: 2002 Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey, GSO. The average hours used per day for housework by women aged 15 and over is 2.5 times higher than men in urban areas and 2.3 times higher in rural areas. In 2002, this number is 1.97 and 0.78 hours for urban women and men respectively (figure 2.11). 55 Figure 2.11: Average hours used per day for housework by sex and urban/rural in 2002 (hours) 1.97 0.78 2.06 0.88 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Urban areas Rural areas Female Male Source: 2002 Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey, GSO. In short, the percentage of economically active women is high, particularly in the North West and Central Highlands (80% and 78% respectively in 2003). The percentage of working time used by female workforce in rural areas tends to increase, almost filling up the gap between men and women. We have surpassed the target of 75% of working time used by rural women as set in the Plan of Action for the advancement of women by 2005 and achieved the rate of 77.7% in 2003. However, in recent years, unemployment rate of urban women appears to increase quickly in comparison with that of men (6.9% and 4.4% respectively in 2003). We are still behind the target of an unemployment rate of 5-6% in urban women and more efforts should be made in this regard. The average hours used per day for production and business by women is the same as men (4.9 and 5.0 hours respectively in 2002). However, the average hours used per day for housework by women is 2.5 times higher than men in urban areas and 2.3 times higher in rural areas. Gender situation in labor and employment shows that we have made considerable progress and achieved a number of targets set out in the Plan of Action for the advancement of women by 2005. The percentage of working time used by rural women goes up and the average income of female workforce is about the same as male. However, there are still some shortcomings to be overcome in the immediate and long-term future. Attention should be given to the following issues: Reduce unemployment rate of urban female workforce, particularly in the age between 25 and 44, and provide equal employment opportunities for both men and women. Improve employment quality of male and female workforce in a number of regions, particularly the North West and Central Highlands, to upgrade income and living standard of the population on the basis of high percentage of economically active people in these areas. 56 Increase hours used by men for housework in urban and rural areas to improve the sharing of family burdens between men and women. Besides, it is necessary to pay attention to other important targets of the Plan of Action for the advancement of woman by 2005, such as women making up 40% of people provided with newly-created jobs and women accounting for 50% of credit borrowers, though we currently do not have adequate statistical data on these indicators. 3. Education and training Gender equality in education and training is the result of long-term efforts made by the whole society and it serves as a prerequisite for the development of women and men in the future. Statistical indicators in the area of education and training include indicators on literacy rate, enrolment rate at all education levels, level promotion and drop-out rate of boys and girls, percentage of highest education level achieved by population and percentage of female teachers. The literacy rate of Vietnamese population is high with a very small difference between men and women. In 2002, the rate in population aged 10 and over is 92% - 95% in men and 89% in women. However, the difference is considerable between different ethnic groups. In 2002, it is 92% in Kinh women, 89.2% in Tay women, 69.8% in Thai women and 21.9% in H’Mong women. Men's literacy rate among respective ethnic groups is 96.6%, 95.3%, 89.6% and 53.1% (figure 3.1). Figure 3.1: Literate rate of population aged 10 and over by sex and ethnic group in 2002 (%) 92.0 89.2 69.8 21.9 96.6 95.3 89.6 53.1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Kinh Tay Thai H'Mong Female Male Source: 2002 Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey, GSO. The gross enrolment rate of boys and girl32 at primary education in the whole 32 Gross enrolment rate of female population at primary education is the percentage of girl pupils attending primary schools to the total population in the primary education age group (6-10 years old). It is the same for gross enrolment rate at lower secondary education (11-14 years old) and upper secondary education (15-17 years old). 57 country is high and tends to increase in recent years. In school year 2003-2004, it is as high as 102.6% for girls and 107.4% for boys. The gross enrolment rate of boys and girls at lower secondary education is also high and keeps increasing. Despite stable growth recently, there is still a gap between boys and girls in term of gross enrolment rate at lower secondary school. The difference is 3.7 percents in school year 2003-2004 (86.5% in girls and 90.2% in boys), against 3.2- percetn-difference in school year 2000-2001 (figure 3.2). Figure 3.2: Gross enrolment rate of boys and girls at lower secondary school from 2000 to 2004 (%) 80.2 83.7 84.2 86.5 83.3 87.0 87.6 90.2 0 50 100 150 200 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 Boys Girls Source: MOET and GSO periodical reports It is noteworthy that the gap is increasing in some localities. For example in Ca Mau province, the rate is 58% and 67.3% for girls and boys respectively in school year 2001- 2002, and is 60% and 74% for girls and boys in school year 2003-2004. This points to the instability of the gross enrolment rate of girls at lower secondary education level. One of the causes of this situation is that fewer girls enroll into lower secondary school although they have higher completion rate of primary school as compared to boys. In school year 2002-2003, the completion rate of primary school33 in the whole country is 82.7% for girls and 78.9% for boys. Also in that year, the rate of pupils moving from primary to lower secondary level34 is 95.7% for girls and 100.5% for boys. While many boy drop-outs have returned to school and continued with the lower secondary education, this has not happened to girls. The gross enrolment rate of girls at upper secondary education in school year 2003-2004 is 45.2% and 45.7% in girls and boys respectively. This rate has been 33 Completion rate of primary level by girls is the percentage of girl pupils graduated from primary level in school year t to the number of girl pupils of grade 1 at the beginning of school year t-4 34 Rate of girl pupils moving from primary to lower secondary level is the percentage of girl pupils who enroll at grade 6 to the number of female primary graduates. 58 increasing constantly for recent years, narrowing the gap between boys and girls since the year 2000 (figure 3.3). Figure 3.3: Gross enrolment rate at upper secondary school by sex from 2000 to 2004 (%) 36.6 38.2 43.1 45.243.6 44.9 44.3 45.7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 Girls Boys Source: MOET and GSO periodical reports But in some regions, girls are still left behind boys in this regard. In school year 2003- 2004, while the difference in the whole country is 0.5 percent, it is 2 percents in the North East, 5.8 percents in the North West, and 1.4 percents in the Mekong River delta. However the rate is 2.5 percents higher in girls than in boys (figure 3.4). Figure 3.4: Gross enrolment rate at upper secondary school in school year 2003-2004 by sex and region (%) 45.2 45.3 30.4 47.9 32.3 45.7 47.3 36.2 45.4 33.7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Whole country North East North West Central Highlands Mekong River Delta Girls Boys Source: MOET and GSO periodical reports An issue of concern is the higher drop-out rate of boys as compared to girls at all the primary, lower secondary and higher secondary education levels, though the difference is not much. In school year 2002-2003, the drop-out rate at primary level in the whole country is 3.09% for girls and 3.16% for boys (figure 3.5). 59 Figure 3.5: Drop-out rate at all school levels by sex in school year 2002-2003 (%) 3.09 5.37 7 3.16 6.38 7.47 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Girls Boys Source: MOET and GSO periodical reports Women teachers make up a high percentage in the total teachers of education sector but mostly at lower levels. Generally, the higher the education level, the fewer women teachers, except for college level, where the percentage of men and women teacher are almost the same (figure 3.6). It is possibly because of lower investment by families in girl education in the past, stereotypes of gender roles, prejudices against women’s capacity and family workload on women themselves. Figure 3.6: Percentage of teachers at all education levels by sex in school year 2003-2004 (%) 78.1 68.2 56.1 39.9 48.8 37.6 21.9 31.9 43.9 60.1 51.2 62.4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Professional secondary College University Women Men Source: MOET and GSO periodical reports 60 The percentage of highest education level achieved by women35 is fairly good at some education levels. In 2002, for every 100 women age 15 and over, there are 25.5 primary graduates, 25.8 lower secondary graduates and 9.4 upper secondary graduates. Respective figures in male population are 27.3, 29.5 and 12.0. The difference between men and women is not big in professional secondary education with 2.9% in women and 2.8% in men. The figure at college and university level is 2.7% in women and 4.2% in men (figure 3.7). At post-graduate level, the percentage of women is 3 times lower than men (0.04% in women and 0.13% in men). Figure 3.7: Percentage of highest education level achieved by population aged 15 and over by sex in 2002 (%) 25.5 25.8 9.4 0.8 2.9 2.7 27.3 29.5 12 2.2 2.8 4.2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Technical worker Professional secondary College / university Female Male Source: 2002 Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey. In short, impressive achievements have been made in regards to gender equality in education and training in recent years. However, there are still many issues of concern, particularly the following problems: It is more difficult for ethnic minority women and girls in remote and mountainous areas to gain access to education than men and boys. It poses a big challenge to the target of functional literacy among 95% of illiterate women aged under 40 as set out in the national Plan of Action for the advancement of women by 2005. While the gross enrolment rate of boys and girl at lower education level has been improved, the gap between the two sexes remains unchanged. Improvement in the said gap, however, has been reported at upper secondary education level. The drop-out rate in girls is higher as compared to boys at primary school but lower at higher levels. Particularly the rate of girls moving from primary to lower secondary level is lower than boys. This points to the need for specific measures to limit the drop-out 35 Percentage of highest education level achieved by women is the percentage of women aged 15 and over having achieved the highest education level to female population aged 15 and over (However, data of this statistics book is calculated on women aged 10 and over - see table 3.10A). 61 rate among boys and girls at different education levels, particularly among primary girl students, and to improve the promotion rate to lower secondary schools, especially for girls in ethnic and remote areas. 4. Health care Health care, particularly women health care, is of special importance not only for the present generation but also for many generations in the future. Indicators in health care group are those on life expectancy of women and men, women health care before, during and after birth-giving and child malnutrition. Life expectancy at birth36 in 1999 is 70.1 years in women and 66.5 years in men. From 1999 to 2002, the figure increased quicker in men (3.5 years in men vs. 2.9 years in women) (figure 4.1). Figure 4.1: Life expectancy at birth of population by sex in 1999 and 2002 (years) 68.3 71.3 70.1 73.0 66.5 70.0 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 1999 2002 Total Female Male Source: 1999 Population Census and 2002 Population Changes Survey, GSO Percentage of women having received prenatal examination three times or more is 83.8% in 2003, and percentage of women vaccinated against tetanus twice during pregnancy is 88.5%. In 2000-2003 period, the percentage of women having prenatal examinations three times or more has increased considerably from 69.7% to 83.8%. Meanwhile, the percentage of women vaccinated against tetanus twice during pregnancy has slightly reduced though remained at a high level (figure 4.2). Figure 4.2: Percentage of women having prenatal examination three times or more and women vaccinated against tetanus twice during pregnancy from 2000 to 2003 (%) 36 Life expectancy at birth of a woman is the average number of years a woman expects to live, based on age specific death rates for some given years 62 69.7 89.8 83.878.9 81.8 88.588.6 87.7 0 20 40 60 80 100 2000 2001 2002 2003 Prenatal examination Tetanus vaccination Source: MOH periodical reports Different regions in the country differ greatly in terms of health care for pregnant women. The percentage of women having prenatal examination three times or more in 2003 is highest in Red River delta and lowest in the Central Highlands (Figure 4.3). Figure 4.3: Percentage of women having prenatal examination three times or more in 2003 by region (%) 68.5 74.6 83.8 86.3 86.4 90.1 91.7 96.3 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Central Highlands North West North East North East South Mekong River Delta North Central Coast South Central Coast Red River Delta Source: MOH periodical reports The percentage of women vaccinated against tetanus twice during pregnancy remains low in some provinces. In 2003, it is lowest in the provinces of Lao Cai (47.6%) and Son La (53%). The percentage of women giving birth with medical worker assistance has increased continuously in recent years and is 95.8% in 2003. The percentage of women taking vitamin A supplements after giving birth has been slightly increased since 2000 and is 55.8% in 2003 (Figure 4.4). Figure 4.4: Percentage of women giving birth with medical worker assistance and percentage of women taking vitamin A supplements after giving birth from 2000 to 2003 (%) 63 95.893.892.191.4 55.852.455.952.2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 2000 2001 2002 2003 With medical worker assistance Taking vitamin A supplements Source: MOH periodical reports. The care given to birth-giving women greatly differs between regions. In 2003, the percentage of women giving birth with medical worker assistance is highest in the Red River delta at 99.9% and lowest in the Central Highlands and the North West (72.7% and 80% respectively) (figure 4.5). Figure 4.5: Percentage of women giving birth with medical worker assistance by region in 2003 (%) 72.7 80.0 88.3 96.2 97.0 98.2 98.5 99.9 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Central Highlands North West North East South Central Coast North Central Coast Mekong River Delta South East Red River Delta Source: MOH periodical reports. It is noteworthy that in some Central Highlands and North East provinces, the percentage of women giving birth with medical worker assistance is still low: 53.2% in Gia Lai and 59.8% in Ha Giang. The infant mortality rate (mortality rate of children under 1) reflects clearly differentiated quality of maternal and child health care between regions. The rate in 2003 is 210/00 in the whole country, 370/00 in the North West and 290/00 in the North East and Central Highlands. Particularly the rate in some provinces can be twice as much as the national average level, e.g. in Lai Chau, Ha Giang and Kon Tum (figure 4.6). Figure 4.6: Infant mortality rate in some localities in 2003 (0/00) 64 21 37 41 29 47 29 45 0 10 20 30 40 50 Whole country North West Lai Chau North East Ha Giang Central Highlands Kon Tum Source: 2003 Population Changes and Family Planning Survey, GSO Rate of maternal mortality related to gestation in public health establishments has been continuously reduced in recent years to the level of 18.2 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2003. However, this rate is unstable and is much higher in some provinces as compared to the national average level, such as 123.90/0000 in Cao Bang, 89.20/0000 in Binh Dinh and 88.80/0000 in Lai Chau. Quality of care for women during and after delivery depends largely on the local health personal. The percentage of commune health centers with at least a midwife or an obstetric-pediatric assistant doctor has increased in recent years and reached 93.1% in 2003 (figure 4.7). Figure 4.7: Percentage of commune health centers with at least a midwife or an obstetric-pediatric assistant doctor from 2000 to 2003 (%) 93.1 90.6 87.887.9 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 2000 2001 2002 2003 Source: MOH periodical reports. This percentage is considerably lower in some regions than the country’s average level, namely 79.3% in North West and 88.7% in the North East in 2003. The malnutrition rate (weight for age) of children under 5 has been declining recently. It has been reducing faster in boys to the level of 28.2% in 2003. The rate is still higher in girls and the gap does not seem to be narrowed in period 2000-2003 (figure 4.8). 65 Figure 4.8: Malnutrition rate of children under 5 by sex from 2000 to 2003 (%) 33.6 33.6 29.2 28.2 33.9 33.9 31.0 28.5 2000 2001 2002 2003 Girls Boys Source: 2000-2003 Malnutrition Surveys, National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) - MOH. The percentage of married women aged 15-49 using contraceptives is 75.6% in 2003. The percentage is highest in the age group of 35-39 and lowest in women under 20 (figure 4.9). Figure 4.9: Percentage of married women aged 15-49 using contraceptives by age group in 2003 (%) 23.2 70.7 84.186.382.1 71.3 51.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Source: 2003 Population Changes and Family Planning Survey, GSO. It is noteworthy that the choices of contraceptives are limited and IUD is the most popular contraceptive for women. In short, indicators in this group demonstrate remarkable progress in recent years in health care, particularly maternal and child health care. However, health care in general and maternal and child health care before, during and after delivery in particular is poorest in the North West, North East and Central Highlands, where a large number of poor and ethnic minority women live. While the 2003 infant mortality rate is 210/00 in the whole country, it is as high as 370/00 in the North West and 290/00 in the North East and Central Highlands. The major causes of this situation include inconvenient public health services, high user 66 fees, and inadequate human resources and medical facilities in commune health centers. This especially affects health care of poor women and children as they depends more on local health services, both in quantity and quality. To this situation it needs to further strengthen the grassroots health network, particularly in remote and isolated areas, through increased investment in medical equipments and health workers at commune level. Special attention should be paid to make maternal health care during delivery accessible to poor and ethnic women living in mountainous and remote areas through conducting communication activities, improving service quality and giving incentives for local health workers to visit villages and hamlets. 5. Leadership participation at different levels The indicators on male and female representation in management and leadership indicate the level of participation by men and women in making decisions on national and local political and socio-economic issues. They also tell how women are facilitated to demonstrate their management and leadership capacities. Indicators in this group include the percentage of male/female National Assembly deputies, People's Council deputies, members of Party executive committees, and leaders at various levels. Prominently the male/female structure in leadership has changed recently to be more balanced. The percentage of women in leadership has increased at all levels. Particularly the percentage of female National Assembly deputies has increased continuously for three terms to reach 27.3% in 11th term (2004-2007) (figure 5.1). Figure 5.1: Percentage of National Assembly deputies in 9th, 10th and 11th terms by sex (%) 18.5 26.2 27.3 81.5 73.8 72.7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Term 9 Term 10 Term 11 Female Male Source: National Assembly Office administrative reports. The percentage of female People's Council deputies at all levels has increased in the last 2 terms, reaching 19.5% at commune/ward level; 23% at district/quarter level and 23.9% at province/city level in term 2004-2009 (figure 5.2). 67 Figure 5.2: Percentage of female People’s Council deputies in 2 terms 1999-2004 and 2004-2009 (%) 21.1 23.9 20.1 23.0 16.6 19.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1999-2004 2004-2009 Province District Commune Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs administrative reports. It is thanks to the guidance and attention by Party committees at all levels to the planning and training of women cadres. In some localities, there have been policies supporting women cadres in education and training. Aware of their positions and responsibilities in the new situations, women have become more self-confident and pro- active in overcoming challengers and striving for further progress37. However, women's participation in leadership increases unevenly in different areas. At the central level, in the last two Party congresses, women representation in Party Committee has dropped down. It remains unchanged in Party executive committees at provincial/municipal level. The rate, however, has slightly increased in Party executive committees at district and commune levels. Specifically at district level, it has increased from 11.3% in term 1996-2000 to 12.6% in term 2001-2005, and at commune level, it has increased from 10.7% in term 1996-2000 to 11.4% in term 2001-2005. Women percentage in the Party Central Committee has dropped from 10.6% in 8th Congress to 8.0% in 9th Congress (figure 5.3). Figure 5.3: Percentage of Party Central Committee members in 8th and 9th Congresses by sex (%) 10.6 8.0 89.4 92.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Term 8 Term 9 Women Men 37 Vietnam Women Union 2003. Review report on 10 year’s implementation of directive No.37 by the Party Central Secretariat on women personnel issues. 68 Source: Party Central Commission for Organization and Personnel. It is notable that although the percentage of women in leadership has increased, such as in the National Assembly, People’s Councils and Party executive committees, the growth is very modest, particularly in Party executive committees at approximately 1%. It means that men are still dominant in leadership positions. The male/female structure also differs at different levels of ministries and sectors. Ministers and deputy ministers are mostly men, though there is a little rise of female representation. The percentage of women as department directors and deputy directors has been falling in the last 10 years. Specifically the percentage of women as department directors has declined from 13% to 12.1% and as department deputy directors from 12.1% to 8.1% (figure 5.4). Figure 5.4: Percentage of women in leadership positions in ministries and state-owned enterprises under the Government from 1992 to 2002 (%) 11.9 12.5 7.3 9.1 13.0 12.112.1 8.1 4.0 4.04.0 4.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1992-1996 1997-2002 Minister Deputy minister Dept. Director Dept. Deputy Director Director General Deputy Director General Source: VWU administrative reports It is remarkable that in the last two terms, the percentage of women key leaders at all levels remains very low, particularly at grassroots levels. In the 2 terms of 1992-1997 and 1997-2002, the percentage of chairwomen and vice chairwomen of People's Committees is under 10% at provincial level and is under 2% at commune level (figure 5.5). Figure 5.5: Percentage of women key leaders at different levels from 1992 to 2002 (%) 7.0 8.9 5.4 6.2 1.3 1.9 0 2 4 6 8 10 1992-1997 1997-2002 Commune District Province 69 Source: MOIA, VWU, Party Central Commission for Organization and Personnel. In short, women have a better representation in management and leadership in recent years. However, the improvement is modest and uneven among different levels and areas. It is noteworthy that the female representation at Party executive committees has declined at central and provincial/municipal levels. The percentage of women key leaders at different levels is generally low in the last 2 tenures. The limited participation of women in leadership and management, particularly in key positions, is due to the lack of guidance, monitoring and encouragement by Party executive committees to women promotion. Besides, there exist a stereotyped and narrow-minded thinking about women, distrust in their capacity and prejudices against female staff; the situation is also attributed to women's triple roles and inferiority complex. This requires more effective guidance by Party levels to women cadre work in the coming time. At the same time, there should be consistent cooperation among various agencies and organizations in fostering and introducing women candidates, thus to gradually increase women representation in management and leadership. 6. Gender-based violence (prostitution, domestic violence and trafficking in women and children) Maltreatment of women and children adversely affects women and men and hinders the realization of gender equality and children’s rights. Indicators in this group deal with some problems related to child abuse, adolescent offenders, illicit drug use, prostitution, and trafficking in women and children. Child abuse cases discovered and judged in the whole country have seen an upsurge. In 2000 and 2001 alone, the number of child abuse cases escalated from 1,684 to 1,913 cases. Among perpetrators of child abuse, 53% are related to sexual abuse and the rest are other offences, such as child killing - 4.7%, malice prepense - 16.3%, trafficking and abduction - 3.2%, seducing and harboring child offenders - 1.5% (figure 6.1). Figure 6.1: Perpetrators of child abuse by offence in 2001 (%) 70 4.7 53.2 16.3 3.2 1.5 21.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Offence Child killing Sexual abuse Malice prepense Trafficking and abduction Seducing and haboring child offenders Other offences Source: Ministry of Public Security, 2001. It is worth mentioning that the proportion of sexual abuse in child abuse is fairly high in some regions, such as 84.7% in Mekong River Delta and 71.5% in South Central Coast (figure 6.2). Figure 6.2: Proportion of sexual abuse in child abuse cases by region in 2001 (%) 15.5 33.0 42.9 50.8 71.5 37.8 62.8 84.7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Red River Delta North East North West North Central Coast South Central Coast Central Highlands South East Mekong River Delta Source: Ministry of Public Security, 2001. Girls make up 63.8% of total abused children. It is significant that children under 13 account for 50% of the total abused children, especially children under 6 account for 9.5%. Perpetrators of child abuse are mostly male, making up 96.8%. It is striking that the percentage of adolescents (under 18) in the total perpetrators is as much as 33.6%. 71 Among adolescent offenders (who are in school age), 64% are at school, 28% are drop- outs and 8% have never been to school. The number of adolescent offenders is 11,376 in 2001, of whom 1.4% female and 35.6% having offended twice and over. A considerable number of adolescent offenders are at young age, i.e. 14% are under 14 (figure 6.3). Figure 6.3: Adolescent offenders by age group in 2001 (%) 14 36 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Under 14 14-under 16 16-18 Source: Ministry of Public Security, 2001. Illicit drug use. The number of drug addicts being treated in rehabilitation centers has considerably increased from 38,461 people in 2001 to 43,782 in the first 9 months in 2004. The percentage of women is 8.2% in the first 9 months of 2004. The data is incomplete as only 13 provinces/cities provided sex-disaggregated data. Of the reported provinces, the percentage of women in drug addicts being treated is highest in Can Tho at 12%, followed by Ho Chi Minh city at 10% (figure 6.4). Figure 6.4: Percentage of women in drug addicts being treated in rehabilitation centers in some provinces/cities in 2000(%) 2.6 5.9 10.1 12.0 7.4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Hanoi Thai Nguyen HCMC CanTho Ba Ria-VungTau Source: Social Evil Prevention Department, MOLISA. The number of reported prostitutes in the whole country is estimated to be 30,600 in 2003, of whom 12,912 are on file. This is a considerable decline as compared to previous 72 years (figure 6.5). Figure 6.5: Prostitutes reported and on file in 2000, 2002 and 2003 (persons) 36,995 50,833 30,600 13,923 17,098 12,912 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 2000 2002 2003 Reported On file Source: MOLISA Statistical Yearbook 2003. Trafficking in women and child trafficking is now on the increase and take many forms. According to statistics, from 1991 to September 2004, 2,458 cases were discovered and investigated in the whole country with 4,076 people involved38. However, this statistical data is incomplete as many perpetrators are not discovered and many victims do not report their cases to the police. It is estimated that tens of thousands of Vietnamese women and children have been trafficked out of country as brides, forced laborers, adopted children or other commercial and inhumane purposes39. It is surprising that while the trafficking in women and children is on the rise, the number of judged cases in the whole country is declining. On the average 180 cases are discovered and investigated annually with 300 offenders involved, but the number of judged cases is much lower. From 2000 to 2003, the number of judged cases of women and child trafficking every year dropped from 179 cases with 303 defendants to 115 cases with 62 defendants (figure 6.6). Figure 6.6: Adjudication of trafficking in women and children from 2000 to 2003 (number of cases and defendants) 38 Report at the national workshop on women and child trafficking prevention program, Ho Chi Minh city, Dec 18, 2004, excerpted from Lao dong (Labor) newspaper, Dec 20, 2004. 39 Ibid. 73 179 107 115 115 303 184 183 62 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 2000 2001 2002 2003 Number of judged cases Number of defendants Source: Criminal Statistics Department. People’s Supreme Procuracy The trafficking of women and children out of border is serious in some localities, such as the provinces of Lang Son, Quang Ninh, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Thai Binh, Nam Ha, An Giang, Kien Giang, Tay Ninh and Dong Thap. However, for many reasons, the number of judged cases on women trafficking remains very low in these localities. For example, in Lang Son province, 4,390 women are reported leaving the country, most of them are trafficked or illegally immigrate to China as brides. However, during 4 years from 2000 to 2003, only 28 cases were tried with 39 defendants. In Thai Binh province, a survey found that 2,514 women have been trafficked or illegally migrate overseas but only 3 cases have been bought to court with 4 defendants40. In short, the violence against women and children, illicit drug use, prostitution and trafficking in women and children are on the increase. To stop violence against and trafficking in women and children, it requires urgent measures by all social strata. Preventive and reactive measures need to take into account occupational and age characteristics of perpetrators, including children. Preventive measures should be directed to people at risk of all ages, particularly young children. The establishment of the Government Steering Committee for prevention of trafficking in women and children of the 2004-2010 period has shown the attention by the Government to this type of crime. Necessary actions are being taken for a closer cooperation between different sectors, especially the Ministry of Police and the Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs. 40 Ibid; Criminal Statistics Department, People's Supreme Procuracy. 74 References (In addition to GSO data) Vietnam Women Union, 2003. Review report on 10 year’s implementation of directive No.37 by the Party Central Secretariat. Report at the national workshop on women and child trafficking prevention program, Ho Chi Minh city, Dec 18, 2004, excerpted from Lao dong (Labor) newspaper, issue 1929, Dec 20, 2004. National Committee on Traffic Safety. Workshop on Land Traffic Safety, 2000. 75 I. D©n sè vμ gia ®×nh I. Population and family 77 78 Kh¸i niÖm c¸c chØ sè vμ §¸nh gi¸ sè liÖu nhãm d©n sè vμ gia ®×nh Nhãm chØ sè vÒ D©n sè vμ Gia ®×nh cã 6 chØ sè trªn tæng sè 59 chØ sè vÒ QuyÒn Phô n÷ ViÖt Nam. 3 chØ sè ph¶n ¸nh vÒ lÜnh vùc d©n sè cã nguån thu thËp chñ yÕu t¹i Tæng côc Thèng kª, 3 chØ sè ph¶n ¸nh vÒ t×nh tr¹ng ng−îc ®·i phô n÷ trong gia ®×nh, cai nghiÖn ma tuý vμ m¹i d©m ®−îc t¸ch sang nhãm 6. Do ®ã, víi nh÷ng chØ sè vÒ d©n sè, viÖc thu thËp sè liÖu vμ biªn so¹n rÊt thuËn lîi. I. Kh¸i niÖm c¸c chØ sè vμ viÖc thu thËp sè liÖu 1. Tû lÖ n÷ trong d©n sè Tû lÖ n÷ trong d©n sè ®−îc tÝnh b»ng sè phÇn tr¨m d©n sè lμ n÷ (trung b×nh/thêi ®iÓm) so víi tæng d©n sè (trung b×nh/thêi ®iÓm) Dù kiÕn ban ®Çu cã thÓ thu thËp sè liÖu nμy tõ Tæng ®iÒu tra d©n sè vμ nhμ ë 1999 vμ c¸c cuéc §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng 2000 ®Õn 2003. Thùc tÕ, sè liÖu n¨m 1999 thu thËp ®−îc tõ Tæng ®iÒu tra d©n sè vμ nhμ ë n¨m 1999; sè liÖu c¸c n¨m 2000- 2003 thu thËp tõ c¸c cuéc §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng c¸c n¨m 2000 ®Õn 2003. Sè liÖu dù kiÕn ®−îc ph©n tæ theo giíi tÝnh, khu vùc thμnh thÞ/n«ng th«n, 8 vïng sinh th¸i, 61 tØnh/TP, d©n téc, nhãm tuæi vμ ngμnh kinh tÕ. Trªn thùc tÕ, c¸c ph©n tæ theo d©n téc vμ ngμnh kinh tÕ kh«ng ph©n tæ ®−îc do c¸c cuéc §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ kÕ ho¹ch ho¸ gia ®×nh kh«ng c«ng bè kÕt qu¶ c¸c ph©n tæ trªn. 2. Tû lÖ giíi tÝnh Tû lÖ giíi tÝnh nam so víi 100 n÷ ®−îc tÝnh b»ng d©n sè (trung b×nh/thêi ®iÓm) nam so víi tæng d©n sè (trung b×nh/thêi ®iÓm) n÷ vμ nh©n víi 100. Nguån sè liÖu cho chØ sè nμy cã thÓ thu thËp ®−îc tõ Tæng ®iÒu tra d©n sè vμ nhμ ë n¨m 1999 vμ cuéc §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng 2000 ®Õn 2003. Thùc tÕ, sè liÖu n¨m 1999 thu thËp ®−îc tõ Tæng ®iÒu tra d©n sè vμ nhμ ë n¨m 1999; sè liÖu c¸c n¨m 2000-2003 thu thËp tõ c¸c cuéc §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng tõ n¨m 2000 ®Õn 2003. Sè liÖu dù kiÕn ®−îc ph©n tæ theo giíi tÝnh, khu vùc thμnh thÞ/n«ng th«n, 8 vïng sinh th¸i, 61 tØnh/TP, d©n téc, nhãm tuæi vμ ngμnh kinh tÕ. Trªn thùc tÕ, c¸c ph©n tæ theo d©n téc vμ ngμnh kinh tÕ kh«ng ph©n tæ ®−îc do c¸c cuéc §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng kh«ng c«ng bè kÕt qu¶ c¸c ph©n tæ trªn. 79 3. Tû lÖ hé gia ®×nh cã chñ hé lµ n÷ Hé gia ®×nh lμ mét hoÆc mét nhãm ng−êi cã quan hÖ huyÕt thèng, h«n nh©n hoÆc nu«i d−ìng, cïng chung quÜ thu nhËp vμ chi tiªu, sèng chung víi nhau trong cïng mét m¸i nhμ víi thêi gian tõ 6 th¸ng trë lªn trong 12 th¸ng qua Chñ gia ®×nh lμ thμnh viªn cña hé gia ®×nh, lμ ng−êi cã vai trß ®iÒu hμnh qu¶n lý gia ®×nh, gi÷ vÞ trÝ chñ yÕu, quyÕt ®Þnh nh÷ng c«ng viÖc cña hé. Th«ng th−êng (nh−ng kh«ng nhÊt thiÕt) chñ hé th−êng lμ ng−êi cã thu nhËp cao nhÊt trong hé, n¾m ®−îc tÊt c¶ c¸c ho¹t ®éng kinh tÕ vμ nghÒ nghiÖp cña c¸c thμnh viªn kh¸c cña hé. Tû lÖ hé gia ®×nh cã chñ hé lμ n÷ ®−îc tÝnh b»ng sè phÇn tr¨m hé gia ®×nh cã chñ hé lμ n÷ so víi tæng sè hé gia ®×nh. Nguån sè liÖu cho chØ sè nμy cã thÓ thu thËp ®−îc tõ Tæng ®iÒu tra d©n sè vμ nhμ ë n¨m 1999 vμ Kh¶o s¸t møc sèng hé gia ®×nh. Trªn thùc tÕ, sè liÖu ®−îc khai th¸c tõ bé sè liÖu th« cña Kh¶o s¸t møc sèng hé gia ®×nh n¨m 2002. Sè liÖu ®−îc ph©n tæ ®Çy ®ñ theo khu vùc thμnh thÞ/n«ng th«n, 8 vïng sinh th¸i, 61 tØnh/TP, d©n téc vμ nhãm tuæi chñ hé. 4. Ph©n bè phÇn tr¨m d©n sè tõ 15 tuæi trë lªn §©y lμ chØ sè thu thËp thªm ngoμi c¸c chØ sè trong nhãm d©n sè vμ gia ®×nh. ChØ sè nμy ®−îc thu thËp tõ §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng n¨m 2002 - 2003, ®−îc ph©n tæ theo t×nh tr¹ng h«n nh©n, giíi tÝnh vμ nhãm tuæi. 5. D©n sè trung b×nh §©y lμ chØ sè thu thËp thªm ngoμi c¸c chØ sè trong nhãm d©n sè vμ gia ®×nh. Sè liÖu n¨m 1999 ®−îc thu thËp tõ cuéc Tæng ®iÒu tra d©n sè vμ nhμ ë n¨m 1999; sè liÖu n¨m 2001 ®Õn 2003 ®−îc thu thËp tõ §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng n¨m 2001 - 2003. ChØ sè nμy ®−îc ph©n tæ theo t×nh tr¹ng h«n nh©n, giíi tÝnh vμ nhãm tuæi. II. §¸nh gi¸ vÒ tÝnh chÝnh x¸c vμ ®é tin cËy cña th«ng tin §©y lμ nh÷ng sè liÖu ®−îc lÊy tõ kÕt qu¶ cña cuéc Tæng ®iÒu tra d©n sè vμ nhμ ë n¨m 1999, §iÒu tra biÕn ®éng d©n sè vμ nguån lao ®éng hμng n¨m, Kh¶o s¸t møc sèng hé gia ®×nh ®−îc thùc hiÖn 2 n¨m 1 lÇn tõ 2002 ®Õn 2010 do Tæng côc Thèng kª thùc hiÖn. Nh×n chung, sè liÖu tõ c¸c cuéc ®iÒu tra nμy ®· ®¸p øng ®−îc phÇn lín nhu cÇu th«ng tin ph¶n ¸nh tû lÖ n÷ trong d©n sè, tû lÖ giíi tÝnh, tû lÖ hé cã chñ hé lμ n÷. Tuy nhiªn, mét sè chØ sè hiÖn nay ch−a cã ®Ó cã thÓ ®¸p øng ®−îc ®Çy ®ñ nguån sè liÖu theo c¸ch ph©n tæ chi tiÕt nh−: tû lÖ n÷ trong d©n sè chia theo d©n téc, ngμnh kinh tÕ vμ ®Æc biÖt lμ cuéc Kh¶o s¸t møc sèng hé gia ®×nh chØ tiÕn hμnh 2 n¨m 1 lÇn, v× vËy kh«ng thÓ cã nguån sè liÖu ®Ó tÝnh to¸n vμ cËp nhËt sè liÖu hμng n¨m theo yªu cÇu. §©y lμ mét trong nh÷ng h¹n chÕ cña nguån sè liÖu ch−a thÓ gi¶i quyÕt ®−îc trong nh÷ng n¨m tíi. Sè liÖu “tû lÖ n÷ trong d©n sè”, “tû lÖ giíi tÝnh” vμ “tû lÖ hé cã chñ hé lμ n÷” nh×n chung ®¶m b¶o ®−îc ®é tin cËy v× ®©y lμ nh÷ng sè liÖu ®−îc khai th¸c tõ kÕt qu¶ cña nh÷ng cuéc ®iÒu tra do Tæng côc Thèng kª tiÕn hμnh. Trong nh÷ng cuéc ®iÒu tra chän mÉu nμy, 80 mÉu ®−îc chän theo mét ph−¬ng ph¸p khoa häc cã sù t− vÊn cña chuyªn gia chän mÉu Quèc tÕ. Qu¸ tr×nh thu thËp sè liÖu mçi cuéc ®iÒu tra ®−îc chØ ®¹o chÆt chÏ, ®iÒu tra viªn thu thËp sè liÖu lμ nh÷ng c¸n bé cña ngμnh Thèng kª cã kinh nghiÖm trong lÜnh vùc ®iÒu tra vμ ®−îc tËp huÊn kü vÒ nghiÖp vô tr−íc khi tiÕn hμnh. Qu¸ tr×nh thu thËp sè liÖu ®−îc gi¸m s¸t vμ kiÓm tra kü. C¸c b−íc lμm s¹ch vμ xö lý sè liÖu ®−îc coi träng vμ ¸p dông c¸c ph−¬ng ph¸p hiÖn ®¹i ®Ó xö lý sè liÖu v× vËy sè liÖu ®¶m b¶o ®é tin cËy cao. III. KhuyÕn nghÞ Ngoμi mét sè chØ sè ®· ®−îc xö lý, c«ng bè réng r·i vμ cã thÓ khai th¸c mét c¸ch dÔ dμng, mét sè chØ sè ph¶i dùa trªn bé sè liÖu gèc vμ sö dông c¸c phÇn mÒm STATA hoÆc SPSS ®Ó xö lý vμ tÝnh to¸n. Do ®ã, ph¶i mÊt nhiÒu thêi gian míi cã kÕt qu¶ ®−a vμo b¶ng sè liÖu. §Ó cã ®Çy ®ñ th«ng tin theo ®óng yªu cÇu ph©n tæ cña tõng chØ sè, cÇn chän läc c¸c chØ sè cïng nh÷ng ph©n tæ −u tiªn cÇn ®−îc xö lý, tÝnh to¸n vμ c«ng bè t¹i c¸c tËp b¸o c¸o kÕt qu¶ ®Çu ra cña c¸c cuéc ®iÒu tra nμy. 81 Indicator Definition and data assessment population and family group Population and Family indicator group consists of 6 indicators among 59 indicators on the rights of Vietnamese women. Data for 3 population indicators come mainly from the General Statistical Office (GSO), the 3 indicators on domestic violence against women, detoxification and prostitution are moved to group 6. Therefore, data collection and compilation for population indicators is not difficult. I. Indicator definition and data collection 1. Percentage of women in the population Percentage of women in the population is calculated as the percentage of women (average at the reference moment) to the total population (average at the reference moment). Data was intended to be collected from the 1999 Population Census and Population Changes and Labor Source surveys from 2000 to 2003. In fact, data of 1999 was collected from the 1999 Population and Housing Census; and data of 2000 - 2003 was collected from Population Changes and Labor Source surveys from 2000 to 2003. It was intended to disaggregate data by sex, urban/rural, 8 ecological regions, 61 provinces/cities, ethnicity, age group and economic sector. In fact, data cannot be disaggregated by ethnic group and economic sector because such disaggregation is not available in the published Population Changes and Labor Source surveys. 2. Sex ratio The ratio of men to 100 women is calculated by dividing male population (average at the reference moment) by female population (average at the reference moment) and multiplying by 100. Data was intended to be collected from the 1999 Population and Housing Census and Population Changes and Labor Source surveys from 2000 to 2003. In fact, data of 1999 was collected from the 1999 Population and Housing Census; and data of 2000 - 2003 was collected from Population Changes and Labor Source surveys from 2000 to 2003. It was intended to disaggregate data by sex, urban/rural, 8 ecological regions, 61 provinces/cities, ethnicity, age group and economic sector. In fact, data cannot be disaggregated by ethnic group and economic sector because such disaggregation is not available in the published Population Changes and Labor Source surveys. 82 3. Percentage of female-headed households A household is a person or a group of persons of blood, marriage or nurture relations, sharing the income and expenditure, living in one house for at least 6 months in the past 12 months. Head of household is a member of the household in the position to manage and decide household activities. Head of household usually but not necessarily has the biggest income in the household and directs all economic and occupational activities of other household members. Percentage of female-headed households is calculated as the percentage of female- headed households to the total number of households. Data was intended to be collected from the 1999 Population and Housing Census and Household Living Standard Survey. In fact, data was extracted from primary data set of the 2002 Household Living Standard Survey. The data is disaggregated by urban/rural, 8 ecological regions, 61 provinces/cities, ethnicity and age group of household heads. 4. Proportion of population aged 15 and over This is an additional indicator besides the population and family indicators. Data of this indicator was collected from the 2002 and 2003 Population Changes and Labor Source surveys, disaggregated by marital status, sex and age group. 5. Average population This is an additional indicator besides the population and family indicators. Data of 1999 was collected from the 1999 Population and Housing Census; data of 2001 - 2003 was collected from the Population Changes and Labor Source surveys from 2001 to 2003. The data is disaggregated by marital status, sex and age group II. Assessment of data accuracy and reliability The data was extracted from the 1999 Population and Housing Census, annual Population Changes and Labor Source surveys and Household Living Standard survey conducted by GSO every 2 years from 2002 to 2010. In general, data from these surveys are satisfactory for the indicators on the percentage of women in population, sex ratio and percentage of female-headed households. However, data of some indicators, such as percentage of women in population is inadequate for disaggregation by ethnicity and economic sector. Also the Household Living Standard survey is conducted every two years, therefore there is no source for annual data compilation and updating as required. This is one of the limitations in data source, which may not be solved in the next few years. Data of the indicators of the percentage of women in population, sex ratio and percentage of female-headed households are generally reliable as they are from GSO surveys. In these sampling surveys, sampling is conducted with scientific methods and with consultation of international sampling experts. Data collection is always supervised 83 strictly and checked carefully. Each survey involves experienced and well-trained enumerators of the statistics sector. Data cleaning and processing are highly considered and advanced methods have been applied in data processing. The data therefore are highly reliable. III. Recommendations Some indicators that have been processed and disseminated publicly can be accessed and explored easily. Others must base on original data and can only be compiled and calculated by using STATA and SPSS softwares. Therefore, it takes a long time to have results in data tables. In order to have adequate information of all groups of each indicator, some indicators and groups must be prioritized to be processed, compiled and published in reports of these surveys. 84