William stallings computer organization and architecture 6th edition - Chapter 2: Computer evolution and performance

William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 6th EditionChapter 2Computer Evolution and PerformanceCharles Babbage (1791-1871)Construction of a machinecalled “Difference Engine.”ENIAC - backgroundElectronic Numerical Integrator And ComputerEckert and MauchlyUniversity of PennsylvaniaTrajectory tables for weapons Started 1943Finished 1946Too late for war effortUsed until 1955ENIAC - detailsDecimal (not binary)20 accumulators of 10 digitsProgrammed manually by switches18,000 vacuum tubes30 tons15,000 square feet140 kW power consumption5,000 additions per secondVacuum tubesENIACvon Neumann/TuringStored Program conceptMain memory storing programs and dataALU operating on binary dataControl unit interpreting instructions from memory and executingInput and output equipment operated by control unitPrinceton Institute for Advanced Studies IASCompleted 1952von NeumannVon Neumann with the first Institute computer Alan TuringStructure of von Neumann machineIAS - details1000 x 40 bit wordsBinary number2 x 20 bit instructionsSet of registers (storage in CPU)Memory Buffer RegisterMemory Address RegisterInstruction RegisterInstruction Buffer RegisterProgram CounterAccumulatorMultiplier QuotientStructure of IAS – detailEDVACCommercial Computers1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer CorporationUNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)US Bureau of Census 1950 calculationsBecame part of Sperry-Rand CorporationLate 1950s - UNIVAC IIFasterMore memoryUNIVAC IUNIVAC IIIBMPunched-card processing equipment1953 - the 701IBM’s first stored program computerScientific calculations1955 - the 702Business applicationsLead to 700/7000 seriesIBM 701TransistorsReplaced vacuum tubesSmallerCheaperLess heat dissipationSolid State deviceMade from Silicon (Sand)Invented 1947 at Bell LabsWilliam Shockley et al.Transistor Based ComputersSecond generation machinesNCR & RCA produced small transistor machinesIBM 7000DEC - 1957Produced PDP-1IBM 7030 (1961)DEC PDP-1 (1960) Estimated cost=$120,000MicroelectronicsLiterally - “small electronics”A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and interconnectionsThese can be manufactured on a semiconductore.g. silicon waferGenerations of ComputerVacuum tube - 1946-1957Transistor - 1958-1964Small scale integration - 1965 onUp to 100 devices on a chipMedium scale integration - to 1971100-3,000 devices on a chipLarge scale integration - 1971-19773,000 - 100,000 devices on a chipVery large scale integration - 1978 to date100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chipUltra large scale integrationOver 100,000,000 devices on a chipMoore’s LawIncreased density of components on chipGordon Moore - cofounder of IntelNumber of transistors on a chip will double every yearSince 1970’s development has slowed a littleNumber of transistors doubles every 18 monthsCost of a chip has remained almost unchangedHigher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performanceSmaller size gives increased flexibilityReduced power and cooling requirementsFewer interconnections increases reliabilityGrowth in CPU Transistor CountIBM 360 series1964Replaced (& not compatible with) 7000 seriesFirst planned “family” of computersSimilar or identical instruction setsSimilar or identical O/SIncreasing speedIncreasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals)Increased memory size Increased costMultiplexed switch structureIBM 360 FamilyDEC PDP-81964First minicomputer (after miniskirt!)Did not need air conditioned roomSmall enough to sit on a lab bench$16,000 $100k+ for IBM 360Embedded applications & OEMBUS STRUCTUREDEC - PDP-8 Bus StructureOMNIBUSConsoleControllerCPUMain MemoryI/OModuleI/OModulePDP-11 (1973)VAX-11 (1981)Micro VAXSemiconductor Memory1970FairchildSize of a single corei.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storageHolds 256 bitsNon-destructive readMuch faster than coreCapacity approximately doubles each yearIntel1971 - 4004 First microprocessorAll CPU components on a single chip4 bitFollowed in 1972 by 80088 bitBoth designed for specific applications1974 - 8080Intel’s first general purpose microprocessorSpeeding it upPipeliningOn board cacheOn board L1 & L2 cacheBranch predictionData flow analysisSpeculative executionPerformance MismatchProcessor speed increasedMemory capacity increasedMemory speed lags behind processor speedDRAM and Processor CharacteristicsTrends in DRAM useSolutionsIncrease number of bits retrieved at one timeMake DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper”Change DRAM interfaceCacheReduce frequency of memory accessMore complex cache and cache on chipIncrease interconnection bandwidthHigh speed busesHierarchy of busesPentium Evolution (1)8080first general purpose microprocessor8 bit data pathUsed in first personal computer – Altair8086much more powerful16 bitinstruction cache, prefetch few instructions8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC8028616 Mbyte memory addressableup from 1Mb8038632 bitSupport for multitaskingPentium Evolution (2)80486sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipeliningbuilt in maths co-processorPentiumSuperscalarMultiple instructions executed in parallelPentium ProIncreased superscalar organizationAggressive register renamingbranch predictiondata flow analysisspeculative executionPentium Evolution (3)Pentium IIMMX technologygraphics, video & audio processingPentium IIIAdditional floating point instructions for 3D graphicsPentium 4Note Arabic rather than Roman numeralsFurther floating point and multimedia enhancementsItanium64 bitsee chapter 15See Intel web pages for detailed information on processorsINTEL 4004INTEL 8008INTEL 8080INTEL 80286INTEL 80386INTEL 80486PentiumMore PentiumProIIIIVItaniumInternet Resources Search for the Intel Museum Babbage InstitutePowerPCIntel Developer Home